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THE 

UMBRIAN  CITIES  OF  ITALY 
Volume  I 


Travel  Lovers*  Library 

Each  in  two  volumes  ^  Profusely  illustrated 

Florence    .       .       .       •       •  $3.00 

By  Grant  Allen 

Romance  and  Teutonic  Switzerland  3.00 

By  W.  D.  McCrackan 

The  Same.  —  Unillustrated      .         1 .50 

Old  World  Memories        .      .  3.00 

By  £dward  Lowe  Temple 

Paris  3.00 

By  Grant  Allen 

Feudal  and  Modern  Japan  .       .  3.00 

By  Arthur  May  Knapp 

The  Same.  —  Unillustrated      .         1 .50 

The  Unchanging  East         •       •  3.00 

By  Robert  Barr 

Venice  3.00 

By  Grant  Allen 

Gardens  of  the  Caribbees     .       •  3.00 
By  Ida  M.  H,  Starr 

Belgium:  Its  Cities      ...  3.00 

By  Grant  Allen 

Rome  3.00 

By  Walter  Taylor  Field 

Romantic  Ireland        .       .       .  3.00 
By  M.  F.  AND  B.  McM.  Mansfield 

China  and  Her  People        .       .  3.00 

By  Hon.  Charles  Denby,  LL.  D. 

Gties  of  Northern  Italy       .       .  3.00 

By   Grant  Allen   and    George  C. 
Williamson 

The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy        .  3.00 

By  J.  W.  AND  A.  M.  Cruickshank 

¥ 

L.  C.  PAGE  &  COMPANY 

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The 

UMBRIAN  CITIES 
OF  ITALY 


By 

J.  W.  and  A.  M.  Cruicksiiank 

IN  TWO  VOLUMES 
Vol.  I. 
ASSISI  AND  ORVIETO 

ILLUS  TRA  TED 


Boston 

L.  C.  Page  ^  Company 
MDCCCCVII 


Copyright^  igoy 

By  L.  C.  Page  &  Company 
(incorporated) 


All  rights  reserved 


First  Impression,  July,  1907 


COLONIAL  PRESS 
Eleciroiyped  and  Printed  by  C.  H.  Simonds  ^  Coo 
Boston,  U.  S.  A 


Preface 


THE  compilers  of  the  following  pages 
deeply  regret  that  Mr.  Grant  Allen, 
who  planned  this  series  of  travel  books, 
should  not  have  lived  to  develop  his  ideas 
tinder  his  own  hand.  They  had  the  privilege 
of  seeing  him  at  work  upon  his  books  on 
Venice,  and  had  some  opporttmity  of  recog- 
nizing the  brilliant  powers  of  observation, 
and  the  masterly  skill  in  clear  and  simple 
exposition  which  he  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
subject.  Although  they  have  been  able 
only  very  imperfectly  to  appreciate  and  follow 
his  example,  they  think  it  may  be  for  the 
convenience  of  readers  to  summarize  the 
aims  originally  in  view. 

The  book  is  not  intended  to  take  the  place 
of  guide-books  such  as  those  of  Baedeker 
or  Murray.  It  does  not  give  information 
about  the  details  of  travel,  nor  does  it  notice 

V 


vi 


Preface 


all  monuments  irrespective  of  their  merit  or 
interest.  In  dealing  with  collections,  the 
object  has  not  been  to  furnish  a  catalogue, 
but  to  indicate  the  matters  of  essential  inter- 
est, and,  so  far  as  is  possible,  to  suggest  the 
reason  for  this  interest.  An  attempt  has 
been  made  to  give  just  enough  historical 
tradition  to  enable  the  traveller  to  create 
for  himself  an  atmosphere  suitable  to  the 
objects  which  he  is  engaged  in  studying, 
and  sufficiently  detailed  to  suggest  the  place 
which  they  take  in  the  general  development 
of  human  interests. 

Two  points  of  view  present  themselves 
in  regard  to  all  that  we  see  —  the  manner 
of  the  doing  of  the  thing,  and  the  object 
with  which  it  has  been  done.  The  one  is  the 
point  of  view  of  the  artist ;  the  other  that  of 
the  student  of  human  nature.  An  endeavour 
has  been  made  to  appreciate  the  monimients 
from  both  points  of  view. 

It  has  been  thought  to  be  most  courteous 
to  those  who  use  this  book  to  express  opinions 
quite  frankly;  but  no  authority  is  claimed, 
and  particularly  where  the  sphere  of  the 
experts  may  have  been  trespassed  on,  nothing 


Preface 


vii 


more  is  intended  than  a  suggestion  for  the 
traveller,  to  be  used  as  a  starting-point  for 
his  own  observations. 

The  compilers  are  conscious  that  errors 
and  misconceptions  may  be  foimd,  and  they 
will  value  the  corrections  which  fellow- 
students  and  travellers  may  be  able  to  send 
them,  in  the  care  of  the  publisher.  They 
desire  also  to  express  their  acknowledgment 
of  the  assistance  they  have  received  from  Miss 
Katharine  Wilson,  who  accompanied  them 
upon  the  journey.  In  the  work  of  observa- 
tion as  well  as  of  revision,  they  are  greatly 
indebted  to  her  helpful  insight. 


A  Brief  History  of  Umbria 


HE  Umbrians  have  been  generally  re- 


^  garded  as  among  the  most  ancient  of 
the  races  in  Italy,  and  at  one  time  their 
territory  was  widely  extended. 

Successive  waves  of  conquest  gradually 
forced  the  Umbrians  from  the  valley  of  the 
Po  and  from  the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic,  so  that 
for  several  centuries  before  our  era  they 
were  confined  to  the  moimtain  ranges  and 
to  the  valleys  of  the  Apennines  in  Central 
Italy. 

The  first  conquerors  that  we  know  of 
as  limiting  the  Umbrian  boundaries  were  of 
Etruscan  race.  This  people  settled  through- 
out a  large  part  of  Central  Italy,  from  Lom- 
bardy  in  the  north  to  Campania  in  the  south. 
Such  ancient  centres  of  life  as  Orvieto  and 
Perugia  are  full  of  evidence  of  Etruscan  life, 


ix 


X         A  Brief  History  of  Umbria 

and  their  remains  are  widely  spread  through- 
out Umbna. 

The  close  connection  between  the  two 
peoples  is  of  importance  in  the  history  of 
Central  Italy,  for  the  Etruscans  were  the 
most  advanced,  and  the  most  highly  civilized 
of  all  the  contending  races  in  the  country. 

The  next  limitation  of  Umbria  was  the 
result  of  the  Celtic  invasion  of  Italy  in  the 
fourth  century  b.  c.  The  Celts  advanced 
along  the  Adriatic  coast  from  the  north, 
while  tribes  of  Italian  origin  coming  from  the 
south  established  themselves  on  the  same 
coast,  and  thus  the  Umbrians  were  confined 
to  the  inland  and  moimtainous  parts  of  the 
cotmtry.  They  ceased  to  be  a  powerful 
people,  and  offered  but  a  feeble  defence 
against  invasion. 

In  396  B.  c,  the  capture  of  the  Etruscan 
city  of  Veii,  some  eleven  miles  from  Rome, 
opened  the  way  for  the  advance  of  the  Re- 
public into  Central  Italy,  and  within  the  next 
htmdred  years  the  power  of  Rome  was  es- 
tablished throughout  Umbria.  In  309  B.C., 
the  Etruscans  and  their  allies  were  defeated 
at  the  Vadimonian  Lake,  near  the  modern 


A  Brief  History  of  Umbria 


town  of  Orte;  and  in  296  b.  c,  a  still  more 
crushing  defeat  was  inflicted  on  the  Etrus- 
cans, Celts,  Samnites,  and  Umbrians  at 
Sentinum,  near  the  modem  Sassoferrato. 

One  of  the  most  important  results  of  the 
Roman  conquest  was  the  making  of  the 
Flaminian  Way  in  the  year  220  b.  c.  This 
road  stretched  from  Rome  to  Rimini,  passing 
Nami,  Nocera,  Cagli,  the  Furlo  Pass,  Fos- 
sombrone,  and  Fano;  there  was  also  a 
branch  leading  to  Ancona.  By  this  means 
the  upland  valleys  of  the  Apennines  were 
connected  on  the  one  hand  with  the  capital, 
and  on  the  other  with  the  seaports  of  the 
Adriatic.  The  busy  traffic  of  this  great 
highway  led  to  the  development  of  many 
towns  on  its  route,  and  to  the  prosperity 
of  places  such  as  Spoleto,  Trevi,  Foligno,  and 
Spello. 

The  Roman  province  of  Umbria  included 
Central  Italy  east  of  the  Tiber,  with  a  coast 
line  on  the  Adriatic  extending  roughly  from 
Rimini  to  Ancona;  to  the  north  it  included 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Arno  known  as  the 
Casentino,  and  to  the  south  the  river  Nar 
divided  it  from  the  Sabine  cotmtry. 


A  Brief  History  of  Umbria 


During  the  time  of  the  Social  War,  b.  c.  90, 
Umbria  and  Etrtiria  did  not  join  in  the  rising 
of  the  Italian  allies  against  Rome,  and  the 
people  of  both  nations  received  the  Roman 
franchise. 

In  the  long  warfare  between  the  imperial 
power  of  Rome  and  the  barbarians  during 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  of  our  era,  the 
province  of  Umbria  shared  the  fate  of  the 
rest  of  Italy.  The  siege  of  Perugia,  in  which 
the  town  was  attacked  by  the  Gothic  King 
Totila  and  defended  by  the  Bishop  S.  Erco- 
lano,  and  the  great  defeat  of  King  Totila  by 
Narses,  the  general  of  the  Emperor  Justinian, 
near  Gualdo,  are  incidents  which  connect 
Umbria  with  the  history  of  this  great  struggle. 
It  was  not  tmtil  the  Lombard  conquest  of 
Italy  in  568  a.  d.  that  the  province  had  any 
individual  importance.  Under  the  new 
conquerors  the  cotmtry  was  divided  into  a 
nimiber  of  dukedoms ;  one  of  the  principal  of 
these  had  its  capital  at  Spoleto  and  included 
a  large  part  of  Umbria. 

The  Lombards  were  nearly  always  at  feud 
with  the  Pope.  They  were  far  more  barbar- 
ous enemies  than  the  Goths,  and  as  their 


A  Brief  History  of  Umbria 


power  grew  the  position  of  the  Roman  see 
became  intolerable.  In  the  middle  of  the 
eighth  century  the  power  of  the  Prankish 
rulers  of  German  and  Gaulish  lands  had  be- 
come vested  in  the  Arnulfings  or  Karlings,  a 
family  of  great  personal  distinction  and  ca- 
pacity. It  was  from  Pippin,  king  of  the 
Pranks,  that  Pope  Stephen  begged  for  help 
against  the  Lombards.  The  king  crossed 
the  Alps  and  defeated  the  enemies  of  the 
Pope  in  755,  and  it  is  said  that  the  Prankish 
conqueror  granted  or  confirmed  to  the  Pope 
possession  of  large  territory,  mainly  in  Cen- 
tral Italy.  When  Pippin's  son  Charles  com- 
pleted the  conquest  of  the  Lombards  in  774, 
the  donation  previously  made  is  supposed  to 
have  been  confirmed,  and  thus  the  Pope 
became  possessor  of  a  title  which  was  never 
relinquished,  although  many  generations 
passed  away  before  it  was  effectually  en- 
forced. 

The  Prankish  conquest  of  Northern  and 
Central  Italy  involved  a  strengthening  of 
barbarian  influence.  Margraves  and  counts 
formed  the  chiefs  of  a  landed  aristocracy 
foimded  on  feudal  ideals  at  variance  with 


xiv       A  Brief  History  of  Umbria 

those  of  the  municipal  society  of  Greece  and 
Rome. 

In  the  year  800  the  Pope  crowned  Charles 
as  emperor,  and  thus  we  find  throughout 
mediaeval  Italian  history  a  Teutonic  em- 
peror and  a  feudal  aristocracy  —  set  against 
a  Pope  and  the  dwellers  in  tow^ns  represent- 
ing, for  the  most  part,  the  traditions  of 
Roman  civilization. 

From  time  to  time  these  Teutonic  em- 
perors crossed  the  Alps  and  exercised  a  dis- 
turbing influence  on  Italian  politics;  never- 
theless, the  most  permanent  and  persistent 
forces  at  work  in  moulding  the  life  of  Central 
Italy,  consisted  (i)  in  the  influence  of  the 
Church,  which  claimed  in  many  parts  of 
the  cotmtry  paramount  power;  (2)  in  the 
power  of  the  nobles,  tending  towards  the 
tyranny  of  some  great  family;  (3)  in  the 
power  of  the  citizens  organized  under  trade 
guilds. 

The  history  of  the  Italian  commimes  is 
really  the  story  of  the  struggle  between  the 
Latin  and  Teutonic  ideal.  To  a  large  extent 
this  took  the  form  of  war  between  the  nobles 
and  the  citizens,  and  it  constituted  the  serious 


A  Brief  History  of  Umbria  xv 

element  lying  behind  the  faction  fights  of 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines. 

The  power  of  the  Pope  grew  very  slowly, 
and  it  was  only  after  the  retiirn  from  Avignon 
and  the  closing  of  the  schism  by  the  election  of 
Martin  V.  in  141 7  that  the  political  influence 
of  the  Church  became  a  constant  and  in- 
creasing element  in  Italian  politics.  The 
wars  waged  by  Julius  II.  early  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  the  building  of  the  great 
fortress  in  Perugia  by  Paul  III.  in  1540, 
mark  the  realization  of  the  dreams  of  Pope 
Stephen  when,  eight  htmdred  years  before, 
he  called  the  king  of  the  Franks  across  the 
Alps. 

By  the  side  of  the  Italian  commtmes  and 
far  from  the  court  of  Rome,  there  was 
growing  up  a  third  power  of  which  little  is 
heard  in  the  din  of  mediaeval  conflict.  This 
was  the  duchy  of  Savoy.  In  the  middle  of 
the  eleventh  century  the  power  of  this  house 
was  founded  by  the  marriage  of  a  Cotint  of 
Maurienne  who  owned  the  western  side  of  the 
Mont  Cenis  Pass,  with  a  daughter  of  the 
Coimt  of  Turin  who  held  the  Castle  of  Susa 
on  the  Italian  side.    One  family  thus  came 


xvi        A  Brief  History  of  Umbria 

into  possession  of  the  highway  over  the 
mountains.  From  this  beginning  the  house 
of  Savoy  grew  in  power  and  influence.  In 
1720  the  chief  of  the  house  took  the  title  of 
King  of  Sardinia.  In  March,  i860,  there  was 
added  to  this  kingdom  a  large  part  of  Central 
Italy.  In  1861  the  King  of  Sardinia  was  pro- 
claimed King  of  Italy,  and  in  1870  Rome  was 
made  the  capital  of  a  tmited  nation  imder  the 
rule  of  the  house  which  had  been  founded 
eight  htmdred  years  before. 


Contents 

PART  I  — ASSISI 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Preface    v 

A  Brief  History  of  Umbria     .      .  ix 

I.    St.  Francis  — The  Duomo  ...  3 
II.    Monuments  Connected  with  the  Life 

OF  St.  Francis   21 

III.  The  Church  of  S.  Francesco   .      .  49 

IV.  The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  —  The 

Upper  Church  75 

V.  The  Life  of  St.  Francis  —  Conform- 

ity TO  That  of  Christ    .      .  .100 

VI.  S.  Francesco  —  The  Lower  Church 

—  Life  of  Christ  —  The  Four  Al- 
legorical Frescoes  .      .      .  .123 

VII.  The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  .  .161 
VIII.    Other  Churches  187 

PART  II  — ORVIETO 

I.    History  of  the  Town  ....  203 
II.    Etruscan  Orvieto  —  The  Necropolis  213 


xvii 


xviii 


Contents 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

III.  The  Museums   230 

IV.  The  Duomo   256 

V.  The  Cappella  della  Madonna  di  S. 

Brizio  .   311 

VI.    The  Cappella  del  Corporale    .       .  342 

VII.    Other  Churches    .      .      .      .      .  354 

Index   361 


List  of  Illustrations 


Volume  I 

PAGE 

A.  Carracci  —  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  Frontispiece 

Temple  of  Minerva   4 

Church  of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli      .  7 

A  Fountain  in  Assisi   18 

Interior  of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli     .  31 

An  Old  Bridge  over  the  Tiber  .      .      .  36  ♦ 

The  Road  to  Perugia   46 

Church  of  S.  Francesco       .      .      .      •  52 

A  Quiet  Street      .      .      .      .      .      .  62 

Paolo  Uccello  —  Portrait  of  Giotto.      .  70 

A  Modern  Street   80 

School  of  Giotto  —  Madonna  and  Child  .  83 

Midday  in  Assisi   96 

Entrance  to  Lower  Church  of  S.  Francesco  100 
Giotto  —  St.  Francis   Preaching  to  the 

Birds   114 

Giotto  —  Salutation   124 

Taddeo  Gaddi  —  Christ  among  the  Doctors  127 

Cimabue — Madonna   134 

Giotto  —  St.  Francis  Restoring  a  Boy  to 

Life   1 36 

Lorenzetti( ?) — Madonna  and  Child  .      .  142 

Giotto  —  Allegory  of  Poverty    .      .      .  145 

xix 


XX 


List  of  Illustrations 


PAGB 

Giotto  —  Allegory  of  Chastity  .      .  .148 

Giotto  —  Allegory  of  Obedience       .  151 

Giotto  —  Glorification  of  St.  Francis      .  155 

Martini  —  St.  Martin  before  the  Emperor  164 

Church  of  Sta.  Chiara   187 

A  Courtyard  in  Assisi   .      .      •            .  196 

The  Bishop's  Palace   207 

Palazzo  del  Capitano   .      .      .      .      .  208 

A  View  of  Orvieto   220 

Etruscan  Statuary   232 

An  Etruscan  Vase   238 

A  Group  of  Etruscan  Bronzes    .      .      .  246 

The  Duomo,  Orvieto   256 

FAgADE  OF  THE  DuOMO  260 

Detail  of  the  First  Pier     .      .      .      .  270 

SiGNORELLI  and  FrA  AnGELICO         .         •  -3^2 

Fra  Angelico  —  Christ  in  Judgment  .  .313 
SiGNORELLI  — The  Doctors  of  the  Church  335 
SiGNORELLI  —  The  Fate  of  the  Wicked  .  336 
SiGNORELLI  —  The  Lot  of  the  Blessed       .  338 


Assisi 


The 

Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


Volume  I 
PART  I— ASSISI 
CHAPTER  I 

ST.  FRANCIS  —  THE  <  DUOMO 

^HE  town  of  Assisi  stands  on  the  slopes 


J-  of  Monte  Subasio.  Below  it  rtrns  the 
.mountain  torrent  of  the  Tescio,  which  after 
joining  two  other  little  streams  flows  into 
the  Tiber.  The  broad  valley  drained  by 
this  river  stretches  in  each  direction  as  far 
as  we  can  see.  Upon  the  mountain  slopes 
which  run  steeply  down  into  the  plain  is  a 
succession  of  towns;  to  the  west,  Perugia, 
to  the  southeast,  Spello,  Trevi,  and  Spoleto, 
all  of  therxi  ancient  centres  of  human  life  and 
human  interests. 

Assisi  stands  on  the  site  of  the  Roman 
town  of  Assisium,  and  there  are  still  remains 


3 


4 


The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


of  imperial  times  to  be  foimd.  The  Forum, 
the  Amphitheatre,  and  the  portico  of  the 
Temple  of  Minerva  carry  us  back  nearly 
two  thousand  years. 

The  empire  was  succeeded  by  the  Lom- 
bard kingdom,  and  during  this  period  Assisi 
formed  part  of  the  duchy  of  Spoleto.  The 
cathedral  in  Assisi  forms  an  interesting 
record  of  the  effect  of  the  barbarian  con- 
quests of  Italy.  The  fagade  is  an  example  of 
the  style  of  architecture  used  from  the 
seventh  century  to  the  twelfth.  It  represents 
the  period  when  the  northern  races  were 
struggling,  with  only  partial  success,  to 
absorb  the  traditions  of  classical  art. 

The  more  complete  fusion  of  the  various 
social  forces  in  the  country  finds  its  expres- 
sion in  the  Gothic  church  of  San  Francesco, 
the  tomb  of  St.  Francis. 

In  the  possession  of  this  long  story  of  con- 
tinuous life,  and  of  these  buildings  which 
testify  to  it,  Assisi  does  not  differ  from  many 
other  Italian  towns,  nor  is  there  anything 
distinctive  in  its  commercial,  political,  or 
intellectual  condition.  There  is  no  absorbing 
interest  such  as  we  find  in  the  political  system 


TEMPLE  OF  MINERVA 


St.  Francis  —  The  Duomo  5 


of  the  Venetian  nobles,  or  of  the  princes  of 
the  house  of  Visconti;  there  is  no  record  of 
a  keen  spirit  of  philosophical  inquiry  such 
as  existed  at  Padua  and  Florence;  nor  is 
there  any  important  local  school  of  painters 
or  sculptors. 

What  we  do  find  is  the  fulfilment  of  the 
spiritual  revival  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  in  the  life  of  St.  Francis.  It  was 
here  that  he  was  born  in  1 182 ;  at  S.  Damiano 
he  received  the  call  to  the  higher  fife;  in 
the  market-place  he  renounced  not  only  the 
pomps  and  vanities  of  the  world,  but  even 
the  closest  of  family  ties;  in  the  Umbrian 
valleys  he  preached  the  gospel  of  love  and 
of  self-denial.  On  the  side  of  Monte  Subasio, 
high  above  the  town,  is  the  place  whither 
he  went  to  gain  spiritual  strength  from 
austerities  of  more  than  usual  severity.  In 
the  little  cell  under  the  dome  of  Sta.  Maria 
degli  Angeli  he  died,  and  in  the  crypt  of 
San  Francesco  he  was  buried. 

The  new  activity  which  had  begun  to 
work  in  the  minds  of  men  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  found  its  artistic  ex- 
pression in  Giotto  and  among  his  disciples  — 


6         The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

just  as  its  spiritual  development  is  to  be  seen 
in  St.  Francis  and  among  his  disciples. 

This  close  relationship  between  the  spiri- 
tual life  of  the  mendicants  and  the  artistic 
life  of  the  Giotteschi  has  produced  in  the 
church  of  San  Francesco  a  monument,  won- 
derful alike  for  its  interpretation  of  the 
source  of  the  power  which  St.  Francis  had 
over  mankind,  and  for  the  beauty  of  its 
expression. 

In  an  age  of  constant  warfare  and  strife, 
and  in  times  when  the  unscrupulous  and  the 
strong  seemed  to  command  the  world,  the 
life  of  St.  Francis  comes  as  an  entirely  new 
experience.  He  was  a  man  with  no  advan- 
tage of  birth,  he  had  no  intellectual  training — 
he  is  not  even  said  to  have  been  eloquent, 
and  yet  he  was  able  to  quicken  the  conscience 
of  the  western  world  as  none  of  the  great 
ecclesiastics  and  doctors  of  the  Middle  Ages 
had  been  able  to  do. 

We  go  to  Assisi  that  we  may  the  more 
fully  understand  and  realize  the  influences 
of  this  man,  whose  life  is  witness  to  the 
power  of  a  simple  faith,  and  a  love  which 
knows  no  limitation. 


CHURCH   OF  SANTA   MARIA   DEGLI  ANGELI 


St.  Francis  —  The  Duomo  7 


We  go  to  Assisi  to  study  the  rise  and 
progress  of  ItaHan  art,  for  we  find  in  the 
single  church  of  S.  Francesco  examples  of 
the  beginnings  of  native  style,  in  which  the 
native  workman  followed  in  the  steps  of 
Byzantine  tradition.  We  find  also  how  these 
beginnings  develop  into  the  two  great  Tuscan 
schools  of  Florence  and  Siena,  and  we  can 
thus  study  all  the  important  influences 
which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  Italian  art. 

It  is  quite  possible  to  visit  Assisi  and  to 
go  round  the  churches  of  Sta.  Maria  degli 
Angeli  and  S.  Francesco  in  a  single  day, 
and  if  no  more  time  is  available  it  is  best 
spent  in  these  places.  For  those  who  give 
plenty  of  time  to  Assisi  and  the  neighbour- 
hood, it  is  well  to  begin  with  the  piazza 
which  was  once  the  forum  of  Roman 
times. 

In  it  still  stands  the  front  of  the  ancient 
temple  of  Minerva,  giving  a  remarkable 
sense  of  dignity  and  style  to  what  would 
otherwise  be  no  more  than  the  market-place 
of  an  inconsiderable  village.  Underground 
in  the  same  piazza  there  are  fragments  of 
the  buildings  of  the  Forum,  and  in  the  out- 


8 


The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


skirts  of  the  town  there  are  remains  of  an 
amphitheatre. 

The  visitor  should  pass  from  these  traces 
of  Roman  Hfe  to  the  example  of  Romanesque 
life  which  is  found  in  the  Duomo. 

We  next  turn  to  those  monuments  which 
are  connected  with  the  religious  revival  of 
the  thirteenth  century  and  with  the  life  of 
St.  Francis. 

There  are  many  memorials  of  varying 
interest  connected  with  him,  and  the  traveller 
will  do  well  to  discriminate  carefully. 

St.  Francis  may  be  viewed  as  the  simple- 
minded,  sympathetic,  self-denying  soul,  who 
drew  all  men  to  him  by  the  sweetness  and 
by  the  transparent  sincerity  of  his  character. 
He  was  the  simple  preacher  trusting  for  his 
daily  bread  to  the  charity  which  the  love  of 
God  inspired  in  the  hearts  of  his  hearers. 
He  went  forth  owning  nothing ;  he  gloried  in 
the  meanness  and  hardness  of  his  life;  he 
died  lying  upon  ashes.  This  is  the  life  we 
can  partly  realize  at  the  Porzitmcola  under 
the  great  dome  of  Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli 
and  in  the  cells  at  Carceri. 

But  besides  this   St.   Francis  there  is 


St.  Francis  —  The  Duomo  g 


another,  the  founder  of  a  great  order, 
recognized  by  the  Church  as  one  of  its  most 
powerful  members.  He  is  accepted  by  the 
great  ones  of  the  earth;  he  works  miracles 
which  gather  to  Rome  the  spiritual  forces  of 
mediaevalism.  Popes  see  visions  concerning 
him,  and  they  canonize  his  memory.  To 
his  brethren  is  revealed  the  throne  in  heaven 
on  which  he  is  to  sit.  The  principles  which 
guide  his  daily  life  are  crystalHzed  into  the 
rule  of  a  wide-spreading  organization. 

This  is  the  St.  Francis  which  we  find  at 
S.  Francesco. 

We  could  ill  part  with  either  of  these 
records,  for  they  set  before  us  in  a  marvellous 
way  the  life  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries. 

Nevertheless  we  shall  more  truly  compre- 
hend them  if  we  keep  this  twofold  character 
in  mind. 

We  see  the  simple  disciple  of  poverty  in 
his  daily  life  at  Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli  and 
at  Carceri.  At  S.  Francesco  we  see  how  the 
mediaeval  papacy  absorbed  as  much  of  the 
spirit  of  the  mendicant  as  lay  within  its 
range  of  perception. 


lo       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

THE  DUOMO 

The  cathedral  of  Assisi  is  dedicated  in  the 
name  of  S.  Rufino,  an  Umbrian  bishop 
martyred  about  the  year  239.  The  bones 
of  the  martyr  were  carefully  preserved  by 
the  faithful  in  an  ancient  pagan  sarcophagus, 
and  were  not  translated  until  the  fifth 
century.  They  were  then  removed  to  the 
small  church  which  stood  upon  the  site  of 
the  present  Duomo. 

In  1028  Bishop  Ugone  made  use  of  an 
outburst  of  religious  fervour  among  the 
people  to  replace  the  old  building  by  a  new 
and  much  larger  church. 

Nothing  of  this  construction  can  now  be 
seen  except  the  crypt,  which  has  been  lately 
excavated.  It  forms  an  interesting  record 
of  the  architecture  of  the  time.  There  are 
some  traces  of  fresco  paintings,  and  the 
columns  have  capitals  of  tenth  and  eleventh 
century  workmanship. 

During  the  excavations  a  wall  was  un- 
covered with  a  carved  panel  of  very  early 
date,  probably  of  the  eighth  century.  It 
represents  a  cross  with  two  doves  enclosed 


St.  Francis  —  The  Duomo  ii 


in  a  triangle,  having  btinches  of  grapes 
and  ivy  leaves  in  the  corners.  The  wall 
itself,  it  is  supposed,  forms  part  of  the 
original  church  erected  in  the  fifth  century. 

In  the  crypt  there  is  also  the  fine  sar- 
cophagus in  which  the  body  of  S.  Rufino 
was  preserved  until  the  rebuilding  of  the 
church  in  the  twelfth  century.  The  relief 
upon  the  front  represents  Diana  and  Endym- 
ion. 

Returning  again  to  the  piazza,  we  see 
in  front  of  us  the  fagade,  which  was  begun 
in  1 1 34  under  the  direction  of  Maestro 
Giovanni  da  Gubbio.  The  church  had 
become  the  cathedral,  and  was  dedicated  in 
the  names  of  S.  Rufino  and  of  Santa  Maria. 
Nothing  except  the  facade  was  completed  at 
this  time,  and  the  rest  of  the  church  (partially 
restored  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries)  was  finally  transformed  into  a 
Renaissance  building  in  157,  by  Alessi,  the 
Perugian  architect.  The  massive  Campanile 
was  begun  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  was 
continued,  but  not  entirely  finished,  in  the 
next.  Part  of  the  upper  construction  is  of 
modern  date. 


12       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

The  fagade  is  a  good  example  of  Roman- 
esque building  in  the  Lombard  style. 

The  architectural  features  are  not  in 
themselves  particularly  striking,  yet  the 
effect  of  the  fagade  and  tower  is  venerable 
and  picturesque.  The  impression  of  great 
antiquity  which  the  building  gives  is  per- 
haps due  to  the  unusually  dark  colour  of 
the  stone,  and  the  archaic  look  of  the  sculp- 
tures. The  effect  of  the  church  on  the  whole 
is  rugged  and  homely,  and  one  can  easily 
imderstand  how  it  should  have  been  regarded 
for  many  generations  as  the  Domum,*' 
the  house  of  refuge  and  of  consolation. 

The  principal  features  to  be  noticed  are, 
the  three  round-headed  doorways,  the  row 
of  small  columns  with  a  richly  carved  cor- 
nice below,  and  the  three  beautiful  circular 
windows. 

The  subject  of  the  sculptures  upon  the 
fagade  is  chiefly  the  virtue  of  the  sacraments 
of  the  Church.  This  subject  is  illustrated 
not  by  a  series  of  descriptive  or  historical 
figures,  but  by  symbols. 

The  state  of  man  without  grace,  and  the 
power  of  the  sacraments  to  save  Ijim  from 


St.  Francis  —  The  Duomo  13 

sin  and  death,  is  shown  by  striking  images 
drawn  from  the  animal  world. 

In  the  lunette  in  the  central  door,  en- 
closed in  a  circular  aureole,  is  the  figure  of 
Christ,  the  Ruler  of  the  world,  seated  upon 
a  throne,  with  the  stin  and  moon  on  either 
side.  He  holds  the  book  of  the  law  and 
points  to  His  mother,  as  though  indicating 
the  way  of  salvation,  by  means  of  the  in- 
carnation. On  the  right  stands  the  martyr 
Bishop  Rufino.  The  three  small  heads 
between  the  principal  figures  are  supposed 
to  represent  the  three  other  martyr  saints 
whose  relics  are  preserved  in  the  Duomo, 
namely,  S.  Cessidus,  the  son  of  Rufino,  and 
the  two  deacons  Marcellus  and  Exuperantius. 
These  three  were  all  put  to  death  during 
the  persecutions  which  were  carried  on  in 
Umbria  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian. 

Turning  now  to  the  mouldings  round  this 
doorway,  —  the  most  important  one  is 
rounded  and  has  figures  in  high  relief. 
The  lower  part,  on  the  jambs  of  the  door, 
is  covered  with  animals,  tearing,  rending, 
and  devouring  one  another.  These  are 
types  of  man  in  his  fallen  and  imregenerate 


14       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

state,  a  prey  to  his  passions.  The  same 
moulding  carried  round  the  arch  over  the 
door  has  eight  groups  of  small  figures,  which 
cannot  be  easily  distinguished.  A  crowned 
woman  on  a  throne,  on  the  left  side,  probably 
represents  the  Church.  The  baptism  of  a 
child  and  of  an  adult  signify  the  means  of 
grace. 

The  flat  mouldings  have  designs  of  a 
conventionalized  vine  plant,  with  small 
figures  of  men  gathering  the  fruit  and  birds 
eating  the  grapes.  These  designs  represent 
allegorically  the  life  of  the  Christian  in  the 
Church,  nourished  by  its  sacraments. 

Such  a  theme  is  frequently  illustrated 
upon  the  mouldings  of  Romanesque  door- 
ways. Attention  should  be  given  to  the 
various  details,  and  a  comparison  made 
between  different  examples. 

The  side  doorways.  —  In  the  lunettes  are 
two  striking  images  of  the  mysteries  of  the 
Christian  faith.  Above  the  door  to  the  right 
two  peacocks  drink  from  a  large  vase,  and 
above  the  door  to  the  left  two  lions  in  a 
similar  fashion  are  placed  on  either  side  of 
a  great  vessel. 


St.  Francis  —  The  Duomo  15 


Such  a  design,  in  which  animals  stand 
upon  either  side  of  some  sacred  object,  as, 
for  instance,  a  tree  or  an  altar,  is  a  common 
means  of  expressing  devotion  or  worship. 
It  exists  in  the  art  of  many  ancient  races. 

The  sculptures  over  the  doorways  at 
Assisi  illustrate  the  efficacy  of  the  sacra- 
ments of  baptism  and  of  the  eucharist. 
The  large  vessel  is  a  figure,  not  only  of  the 
font,  but  also  of  the  chaHce.  The  lion 
signifies  the  fortitude  which  the  Christian 
derives  from  these  sources  of  purification 
and  life.  The  peacock,  because  of  the  sup- 
posed incorruptibility  of  its  flesh,  is  an 
emblem  of  the  gift  of  immortal  life  received 
through  the  Christian  sacraments. 

The  Hntels.  —  In  the  centre  of  each  lintel 
is  the  Lamb,  the  Agnus  Dei,''  supported 
on  the  right  door  by  the  four  symbols  of 
the  Evangelists;  on  the  left  by  two  eagles 
with  outspread  wings.  The  eagle,  on  account 
of  its  soaring  flight  and  its  power  of  looking 
at  the  sun,  was  used  as  a  figure  of  the  soul 
in  contemplation. 

On  the  jambs  of  the  doors  and  rotind  the 
lunette  are  symbols  representing  the  Christian 


i6       The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

in  the  midst  of  temptations.  The  cross 
has  the  central  position  in  the  half  circle. 
At  the  sides  of  the  door  are  emblems  of  the 
baptized  soul,  the  fish,  the  stag,  and  the 
dove,  combined  with  symbolical  figures  of 
the  devil  represented  as  a  dragon  and  as  a 
two-headed  monster. 

The  animals  sculptured  in  the  round  and 
placed  at  the  sides  of  the  doorways  as 
guardians  are  one  of  the  characteristic 
features  of  Romanesque  buildings. 

Those  at  the  side  doors  are  much  des- 
troyed, and  can  no  longer  be  recognized. 
Those  at  the  central  door  are  excellent 
examples  of  lions  as  they  were  commonly 
represented  by  the  sculptors  of  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries.  Such  guardian  ani- 
mals, whether  griffins  or  lions,  signify  the 
office  of  the  Church  in  its  twofold  capacity 
of  protecting  the  humble  and  ptmishing  the 
proud.  It  will  be  noticed  that,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  animal  on  the  left  punishes  while 
the  one  on  the  right  protects.  Here  the  lion 
on  the  left  devours  a  man  who  is  perhaps 
intended  to  represent  a  soldier,  the  usual 
emblem  of  heretical  pride.    The  lion  on  the 


St.  Francis  —  The  Duomo  17 


right  protects  a  sheep,  which  lies  peacefully 
between  the  fore-feet  of  the  guardian.  The 
sheep  is  the  type  of  the  humble  Christian. 

The  sculptured  cornice,  underneath  the  col- 
onnade, has  a  number  of  fantastic-looking  ani- 
mals, frequently  described  as  grotesques.'' 

When  examined,  however,  they  are  found 
to  be  of  the  same  character  as  the  other 
parts  of  the  decoration.  They  are  illustra- 
tions of  familiar  legends,  or  symbols  of  some 
abstract  quality. 

Immediately  above  the  central  door,  for 
instance,  are  two  small  winged  dragons 
placed  back  to  back,  and  hemmed  in  by  two 
stags  that  attack  them  on  either  side.  The 
stag  was  said  to  be  the  great  enemy  of 
dragons  and  serpents,  killing  them  whenever 
it  could.  The  stag  or  hart,  on  the  authority 
of  Scripture  (Ps.  xlii.),  was  an  emblem  of 
the  Christian  thirsting  after  righteousness. 
Hence  an  image  of  a  stag  destroying  a  ser- 
pent suggested  to  the  mind  the  Christian 
turning  against  his  vices  and  destroying 
them.  (A  fine  illustration  of  the  subject 
will  be  fotind  on  the  church  of  S.  Pietro, 
Spoleto.) 


i8       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

To  the  right  of  these  stags,  on  the  cornice, 
are  several  pairs  of  animals  drinking  from  a 
vase.  These  figures  repeat  the  allusion  to 
the  sacraments  expressed  in  the  lunettes 
above  the  side  doors.  The  animals  here, 
however,  are  dragons  and  other  monsters, 
emblems  not  of  the  true  believer,  but  of 
those  who  are  living  in  mortal  sin  and  yet 
dare  to  remain  in  the  Church. 

The  round  windows. — The  symbols  of 
the  four  Evangelists  are  placed  round  about 
the  central  window,  and  below  are  the 
figures  of  three  men  who  appear  to  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  circle. 

The  window  may  be  intended  to  stand 
for  the  globe  of  the  world,  and  the  three 
men  perhaps  indicate  the  three  parts  of  the 
earth,  namely,  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

The  roimd  window  to  the  left  has  a  little 
figure  of  the  Archangel  Michael  in  the  centre. 
On  the  outside  of  the  circle,  on  the  wall,  are 
two  statues  probably  representing  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul. 

(A  more  detailed  study  of  the  figures  upon 
the  fagade  will  be  found  in  Canon  Elisei's 
Studio  sulla  Cathedrale,  Assisi,  1893.) 


C/2 


o 

< 


St.  Francis  —  The  Duomo 


Close  to  the  entrance  is  the  round  font  in 
which  the  citizens  of  Assisi  for  many  genera- 
tions have  been  baptized,  including  St. 
Francis,  Sta.  Chiara,  and  her  sister  Agnes. 
Here  also,  in  1 195,  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 
received  baptism  when  three  years  of  age. 
He  was  living  at  that  time  under  the  charge 
of  his  tutor,  Conrad  of  Swabia,  Duke  of 
Spoleto. 

In  the  nave,  in  front  of  the  bishop's 
throne,  is  a  triptych  by  Niccolo  da  Foligno 
(working  between  1430  and  1502),  a  pupil 
of  Benozzo  Gozzoli.  It  represents  the 
Virgin  and  Child  with  four  saints.  The 
first  to  the  right  is  S.  Rufino,  the  bishop, 
and  beside  him  is  the  martyr  Exuper- 
antius.  On  the  left  stands  S.  Pietro 
Damiano,  who  wrote  the  life  of  S.  Rufino. 
He  holds  a  book,  and  his  neighbour,  the 
deacon  Marcellus,  presents  an  inkpot  to  the 
author,  having  in  his  other  hand  a  scroll 
with  the  first  words  of  the  Gospel  of  John. 
This  scroll  is  significant  of  one  of  the  duties 
of  the  deacon's  office  as  reader  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  figures  of  the  saints  are  grave 
and  dignified,  and  there  are  no  trifiing  acces- 


20       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

series  or  studies  of  still  life  introduced  to 
disturb  the  serious  character  of  the  picture. 
The  predella  has  the  story  of  the  martyrdom 
of  the  patron  saint  in  three  scenes.  In  the 
first  we  see  the  holy  man  subjected  to  the 
flames,  but  remaining  uninjured.  He  was 
then  thrown  into  the  river  Chiagio  and 
drowned.  It  is  said  that  when  the  body 
was  recovered  a  lily  sprang  from  the  mouth 
and  described  how  the  martyr  had  died. 
The  third  scene  represents  the  translation 
of  the  body  into  the  city. 

The  relics  of  the  saint  are  preserved  in  a 
black  marble  urn  made  in  1850.  The  choir 
stalls,  ornamented  with  intarsiatura,  were 
executed  in  1 520  by  Giovanni  da  S.  Severino. 


CHAPTER  II 


MONUMENTS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  LIFE  OF 
ST.  FRANCIS 


SMALL  street  leading  out  of  the 


^  southern  corner  of  the  Piazza  Vittorio 
Emmanuele  takes  us  to  the  Chiesa  Nuova,  a 
church  raised  on  the  site  of  the  house  which 
belonged  to  Pietro  Bernardone,  the  father  of 
St.  Francis. 

A  portion  of  a  wall,  with  an  arch  above  a 
door,  are  shown  as  a  part  of  the  old  dwelling- 
house.  A  niche  in  this  wall  is  pointed  out 
as  the  place  where  St.  Francis  was  shut  up 
by  his  father. 

In  the  alley  on  the  north  side  of  the  church 
is  the  little  Cappella  di  S.  Francesco,  built 
on  the  site  of  a  stable  where  St.  Francis  was 
bom.  The  legend  that  his  birth  took  place 
in  a  stable  is  probably  due  to  the  parallel 


Chiesa  Nuova 


21 


22       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

which  was  drawn  between  the  life  of  the 
saint  and  that  of  Christ. 

Sta,  Maria  degli  Angeli 

The  church  of  Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli, 
which  forms  such  an  imposing  feature  in 
the  vale  of  Spoleto,  is  only  a  few  minutes' 
walk  from  the  station  at  Assisi. 

Under  the  great  dome  are  two  buildings 
of  supreme  interest  in  the  history  of  St. 
Francis,  viz.,  the  chapel  of  the  Porzitmcola, 
or  the  little  portion,''  and  the  cell  in  which 
the  saint  died. 

According  to  tradition  the  chapel  of  the 
Porzitmcola  was  originally  built  by  four 
pilgrims,  so  that  they  might  place  in  it  a 
relic  of  the  tomb  of  the  Virgin  which  had 
been  given  to  them  by  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem. 
This  first  chapel  of  the  pilgrims  is  supposed 
to  have  been  built  in  a.  d.  352,  and  its  name, 
St.  Mary  of  the  Angels,  has  been  attributed 
to  the  picture  which  they  caused  to  be 
painted  in  it  —  an  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  * 
surrounded  by  angels. 

Another  accotmt  is  that  the  name  arose 


Monuments 


23 


because  the  songs  of  angels  were  often  heard 
in  the  place,  and  especially  on  the  night  of 
the  birth  of  St.  Francis,  September  26,  1182. 

In  516  St.  Benedict  found  the  first  sanctu- 
ary abandoned,  and  he  is  said  to  have  rebuilt 
it  for  some  brethren  of  his  order.  According 
to  some  accounts  it  received  the  name  of 
Porzitmcola,  or  little  portion,"  as  being  so 
small  and  tmimportant  among  the  Bene- 
dictine foundations. 

After  the  restoration  of  S.  Damiano  Francis 
began  to  work  on  the  chapel  of  the  Por- 
zitmcola, and  when  the  brethren  increased 
in  number  he  begged  the  Abbot  of  Monte 
Subasio  to  let  him  have  it,  so  that  there 
might  be  a  place  in  which  the  brethren  could 
say  the  office. 

In  so  far  as  such  an  one  could  be  said  to  . 
have  a  home,  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Porzitmcola  was  the  home  of  Francis,  and 
he  always  desired  that  this  chapel  should  be 
a  pattern  in  its  poverty  for  all  the  other 
places  of  the  brethren. 

The  earliest  disciple  that  St.  Francis  had 
was  Bernard  of  Quintavalle,  and  it  is  told 
in  the  Fioretti  how  their  first  act  of  com- 


24       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

panionship,  after  hearing  mass  together, 
was  to  open  the  missal  and  take  counsel 
from  the  passages  they  found. 

Three  times  this  was  done,  and  their  rule 
of  life  was  founded  on  the  three  messages: 
**  If  thou  wilt  be  perfect  go  and  sell  that 
thou  hast  and  give  to  the  poor; Take 
nothing  for  your  journey,  neither  stave  nor 
scrip,  neither  bread  neither  money;'*  and 
lastly,  If  any  man  will  come  after  Me,  let 
him  deny  himself  and  take  up  his  cross  and 
follow  Me/'  On  this  firm  rock  of  the 
exceeding  great  humility  and  poverty  of  the 
Son  of  God  was  built  the  fabric  of  the 
Franciscan  order.  The  character  of  St. 
Francis  was  too  simple,  too  direct,  and  too 
shrewd  to  allow  him  to  bring  this  teaching 
into  conformity  with  the  ordinary  methods 
of  mankind.  He  accepted  the  sayings  in 
their  plain  and  literal  meaning,  and  whatever 
stood  in  the  way  of  their  realization  he  put 
away  from  him.  Property  meant  servitude 
to  material  things;  it  caused  a  diversion  of 
energy  from  the  true  aim  of  life ;  it  brought 
with  it  temptation  to  covetousness  and 
avarice;   it  was  a  hindrance  to  that  true 


Monuments 


25 


liberty  of  soul  in  which  alone  the  spiritual 
life  can  thrive. 

Learning  was  even  more  dangerous  than 
riches.  In  getting  knowledge  mind  and 
body  were  tempted  beyond  the  way  of 
humility ;  dependence  on  the  imderstanding, 
even  if  it  were  of  Scripture,  would  in  time  of 
trial  lead  only  to  coldness  and  emptiness. 
The  body  also  was  a  source  of  temptation. 
Superfluity  of  food  was  a  hindrance  to  body 
and  soul;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  too  much 
abstinence  was  a  temptation  into  which 
St.  Francis  admitted  he  had  himself  fallen. 

Patient  and  loving  endurance  of  wrong, 
an  obedience  wherein  flesh  and  blood  have 
naught  of  their  own,''  poverty  that  leaves 
the  soul  a  true  spiritual  freedom,  and 
humility  leading  to  the  knowledge  and 
understanding  of  God,  such  were  the  means 
by  which  St.  Francis  strove  to  imitate  the 
life  of  Christ. 

He  never  shrank  from  his  fellow- men,  he 
did  not  fear  contact  with  the  world,  he  only 
desired  to  strip  life  of  all  that  obscures  the 
real  aim  in  living. 

Many  brethren  joined  St.   Francis,  al- 


26       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

though  few  followed  him.  From  the  first 
difficulties  arose:  some  found  the  rule  too 
severe,  and  others  who  felt  a  true  vocation 
could  not  reconcile  the  strongly  developed 
personality  of  the  religion  of  St.  Francis 
with  the  claims  of  the  hierarchy  and  the 
system  of  the  Church.  Yet  he  was  always 
ready  to  be  in  subjection  to  the  clergy.  He 
refused  to  ask  for  a  privilege  to  preach,  he 
bade  his  followers  wait  in  humility  tmtil  they 
were  called;  and  in  regard  to  doctrine  he 
was  a  faithful  son  of  the  Church. 

But  a  man  who  would  take  no  thought 
for  the  morrow,  who  would  own  neither 
breviary  nor  psalter,  who  rejected  learning, 
and  begged  his  daily  bread,  who  refused  to 
accept  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  or  St. 
Augustine,  or  St.  Bernard,  and  who  would 
follow  only  the  way  that  had  been  shown 
to  him  by  the  Lord,  must  have  been  a  severe 
trial  to  the  faith  of  politicians  and  churchmen 
like  Innocent  III.  and  the  Cardinal  Ugolino. 
The  latter,  who  became  Pope  as  Gregory  IX., 
was  deeply  touched  by  the  spirituality  and 
simplicity  of  St.  Francis;  nevertheless  he 
spared  no  pains  to  bring  the  brethren  within 


Monuments 


27 


the  influence  and  order  of  ecclesiastical 
authority. 

The  struggle  was  too  much  for  St.  Francis, 
and  in  1220  he  gave  up  the  rule  of  the  order 
to  Pietro  di  Catana.  In  1221  Pietro  died, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Brother  Elias.  In  this 
man  was  mingled  a  true  love  of  St.  Francis, 
with  a  worldly  spirit  altogether  at  variance 
with  that  of  his  master.  Thus  before  the 
death  of  its  foimder  the  order  had  lost  its 
unity  of  purpose. 

The  ecclesiastically-minded  Cardinal  and 
the  worldly-minded  Brother  Elias  have 
raised  their  monument  to  the  foimder  in  the 
church  of  S.  Francesco.  But  if  we  would 
realize  the  life  of  the  simple  brother  we  must 
seek  its  memorials  in  the  humble  chapel  of 
the  Porziuncola,  at  S.  Damiano,  and  at  the 
Carceri. 

It  was  in  the  chapel  of  the  Porziuncola 
that  the  second  order  of  the  Franciscans 
originated  in  the  dedication  of  Sta.  Chiara. 
Having  been  touched  by  the  preaching  of 
Francis,  she  left  her  father's  house,  and  in 
the  Holy  Week  of  12 12  she  was  received  by 
him  in  the  little  chapel.    Her  hair  was  cut 


28       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

off,  and  she  gave  herself  as  a  servant  of  the 
poor. 

Years  afterwards,  desiring  to  eat  with 
Francis,  Sta.  Chiara  met  her  spiritual  father 
in  front  of  the  Porzitincola,  and  for  the  first 
beginning  of  refreshment,  Francis  spoke  of 
God  with  such  sweetness  and  so  marvellously 
that  they  were  wrapt  in  contemplation.  A 
sign  of  the  presence  of  the  Spirit  was  given 
to  the  people  of  the  country,  who  saw  Sta. 
Maria  degli  Angeli,  and  the  dwelling-place  of 
the  brethren  and  the  wood  about  it,  all  in 
flames.  The  spot  is  marked  by  a  pillar  near 
the  cell  where  St.  Francis  died. 

Once  again  the  story  of  Sta.  Chiara  is 
concerned  with  the  Porziuncola.  At  the 
season  of  Christmas  she  was  sick  and  not 
able  to  go  to  office  in  the  church  at  S.  Da- 
miano,  and  by  the  will  of  Christ  she  was 
miraculously  carried  to  the  chapel  of  the 
brethren,  where  she  was  present  at  matins 
and  received  communion,  and  was  borne 
back  to  her  bed. 

When  the  Abbot  of  Monte  Subasio  granted 
the  chapel  to  Francis,  he  made  it  a  condition 
that  it  should  be  the  head  place  of  the  order, 


Monuments 


29 


and  it  was  here  that  the  general  chapters 
were  held. 

On  one  famous  occasion,  probably  in  12 19, 
five  thousand  brethren  were  gathered,  those 
of  the  different  provinces  each  having  their 
places.  The  writer  of  the  Fioretti  describes 
them  as  spending  their  time  in  reasoning  of 
God,  in  prayer,  and  in  works  of  charity. 
They  said  the  office,  they  lamented  their 
sins,  they  discoursed  of  the  salvation  of  the 
soul.  And  all  was  done  in  such  silence  and 
with  so  much  discretion  that  there  was  no 
noise.  When  the  Cardinal  Ugolino  saw  the 
gathering,  he  said,  Truly  this  is  the  camp 
and  the  army  of  the  Cavaliers  of  God.''  St. 
Francis  bade  that  none  should  take  heed 
for  food,  and  the  people  of  the  country 
brought  all  that  they  had  need  of.  St. 
Dominic,  who  was  there,  knelt  before  Francis 
and  confessed  and  repented,  inasmuch  as 
he  had  judged  hardly  concerning  the  care- 
lessness for  the  food  of  so  many  people,  and 
he  took  for  himself  and  his  brethren  the  rule 
of  holy  poverty. 

There  was,  however,  another  side  to  the 
picture  which  we  find  in  the  Mirror  of 


30       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Perfection.  Speaking  of  what  was  probably 
the  same  chapter,  the  writer  says  that  some 
of  the  brethren  urged  the  Cardinal  to  the 
end  that  Francis  should  follow  the  counsel 
of  the  wiser  brethren,  and  that  they  should 
live  according  to  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  or 
St.  Augustine.  When  the  Cardinal  ad- 
monished Francis  he  answered,  The  Lord 
hath  called  me  by  the  way  of  simplicity  and 
humility,  and  this  way  hath  He  pointed  out 
to  me  in  truth  for  myself,  and  for  them  that 
are  willing  to  believe  me  and  to  imitate 
me.  .  .         (See  Mirror  of  Perfection,  68.) 

Five  years  after  this  Francis  with  his 
brethren  came  back  from  Monte  della  Vernia, 
where  he  had  seen  the  visions  of  the  Crucified 
One.  As  they  came  near  to  the  place  Brother 
Leo  saw  a  cross  going  before  St.  Francis. 
When  he  rested  it  rested,  and  when  he 
went  on  it  went  with  him,  and  from  it  there 
shone  on  the  face  of  Francis  a  bright  light, 
and  the  vision  was  with  him  till  they  entered 
the  place  of  the  brethren  at  Sta.  Maria  degli 
Angeli. 

The  present  church  of  Sta.  Maria  degli 
Angeli  was  built  from  designs  by  Vignola, 


INTERIOR  OF  SANTA  MARIA  DEGLI  ANGELI 


Monuments 


31 


and  the  first  stone  was  laid  in  1569.  It 
covers  two  buildings,  the  Porziuncola  and 
the  cell  in  which  St.  Francis  died. 

The  visitor  is  generally  taken  in  the  first 
place  to  the  sacristy.  The  walls  of  this 
room  are  panelled  with  carved  wood-work 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  in  one  corner 
there  is  a  design  intended  to  represent  the 
Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  There  is  a  small 
half-length  figure  of  Christ  by  Perugino, 
and  there  are  two  small  paintings  by  Guido 
Reni.  From  the  sacristy  a  short  passage 
leads  to  the  chapel  of  S.  Carlo  Borromeo. 
Here  there  is  a  rude  picture  of  St.  Francis, 
attributed  to  Giunta  Pisano;  it  is  painted 
on  a  piece  of  wood  which  is  said  to  have 
formed  part  of  the  bed  of  St.  Francis. 

From  the  chapel  of  S.  Carlo  Borromeo  we 
pass  along  an  arcade  to  a  space  of  open  garden 
ground;  on  the  left  grow  the  roses  of  St. 
Francis. 

The  miracle  of  the  roses  happened  in 
January.  St.  Francis  had  suffered  much 
from  temptation,  and  so  that  the  flesh  might 
be  subdued,  he  went  out  and  rolled  among 
thorns  and  briars.    Suddenly  they  burst  out 


32       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

into  flower,  and  ever  since  they  have  grown 
without  thorns.  Two  angels  led  him  back 
to  the  altar,  where  he  had  a  vision  of  Christ 
and  Madonna  seated  on  their  throne  in 
heaven  among  many  angels.  His  prayer 
was  heard,  and  indulgence  was  granted  to 
those  who  are  truly  penitent  and  who  visit 
the  church. 

From  this  garden  the  visitor  enters  the 
chapel  of  the  roses.  The  inner  part,  which 
covers  the  grotto  where  Francis  lived,  was 
built  by  S.  Bonaventura;  the  outer  part 
was  built  by  S.  Bernardino.  The  whole 
contains  frescoes  painted  by  Tiberio  d'Assisi, 
and  though  the  pictures  are  not  remarkable 
works  of  art,  they  harmonize  with  their 
surroundings. 

The  frescoes  on  the  right  in  the  chapel  of 
S.  Bernardino  are :  — 

1.  St.  Francis  rolls  in  the  thorns;  two 
angels  appear  to  him. 

2.  St.  Francis  is  led  by  two  angels  back 
to  the  church. 

The  pictures  on  the  left  are :  — 

3.  St.  Francis  prays  to  Christ  for  an 
indulgence. 


Monuments 


33 


4.  St.  Francis  presents  roses  at  the 
altar,  and  sees  a  vision  of  Christ  and 
Madonna. 

5.  The  indulgence  is  confirmed  by  Ho- 
norius  III. 

6.  St.  Francis,  accompanied  by  seven 
bishops,  preaches  the  indulgence. 

In  the  chapel  of  S.  Bonaventura,  which 
is  built  over  the  grotto,  Tiberio  has  painted 
St.  Francis  with  twelve  disciples.  The 
altar  is  dedicated  in  the  names  of  five  Fran- 
ciscans who  suffered  in  Morocco.  While  the 
martyrdom  was  taking  place  it  was  miracu- 
lously revealed  to  St.  Francis  as  he  knelt 
in  prayer. 

In  the  grotto  below  the  altar,  where 
St.  Francis  prayed,  there  are  preserved  two 
logs,  part  of  the  pulpit  from  which  St. 
Francis  preached  the  indulgence. 

The  visitor  now  re-enters  the  church. 
In  the  choir,  to  the  left,  is  a  door  leading  to 
a  small  choir,  where  a  pulpit  of  S.  Bernardino 
is  preserved.  Near  this  entrance,  in  the 
choir  itself,  is  an  elaborate  sixteenth-century 
pulpit,  with  confessionals  for  various  lan- 
guages below. 


34       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Round  the  pulpit  the  following  subjects 
are  carved :  — 

1.  St.  Francis  rolls  in  the  thorns. 

2.  St.  Francis  and  seven  bishops  preach 
the  indulgence. 

3.  St.  Francis,  when  he  presents  the 
roses,  sees  the  vision  of  Christ. 

4.  Honorius  III.  confirms  the  indulgence. 

5.  St.  Francis  descends  into  Purgatory  to 
release  the  souls  of  brethren  who  are  suffer- 
ing. 

6.  Death  of  St.  Francis. 

To  the  right  of  the  choir,  opposite  to  this 
pulpit,  is  the  room  in  which  St.  Francis  died. 
On  the  outside  is  a  panel  painted  by  Giunta 
Pisano;  it  is  said  to  have  been  part  of  the 
wooden  cover  which  was  over  the  body  when 
it  was  carried  up  to  Assisi.  On  the  altar  is 
a  figure  of  the  saint,  worked  by  Luca  della 
Robbia  from  a  mask  taken  from  the  face  of 
St.  Francis. 

On  the  walls  are  frescoes  by  Lo  Spagna 
representing  the  twelve  first  disciples  and 
six  other  famous  Franciscans.  In  a  taber- 
nacle to  the  right  of  the  entrance  is  preserved 
the  cord  of  St.  Francis  marked  with  blood 


Monuments 


35 


when  he  received  the  stigmata,  and  also  a 
piece  of  the  habit  of  S.  Bonaventura. 

In  the  chapel  of  the  reHcs,  to  the  right  of 
the  entrance  into  the  sacristy,  is  a  crucifix 
by  Giunta  Pisano. 

In  a  chapel  to  the  left  of  the  nave  is  a 
fine  piece  of  Delia  Robbia  ware.  The  centre 
of  the  composition  is  a  Coronation  of  the 
Virgin.  To  the  left  St.  Francis  receives  the 
stigmata,  and  to  the  right  St.  Jerome  has  a 
vision  of  Christ  on  the  cross.  In  the  predella 
there  is  (i)  an  Annunciation,  (2)  the  Nativity, 
(3)  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi. 

The  chapel  of  the  Porziuncola  itself  stands 
under  the  great  dome  of  the  church.  The 
fresco  over  the  entrance  door  is  a  mannered 
picture  by  Overbeck,  representing  Christ 
and  Madonna  in  heaven  surrounded  by 
angels.  In  a  corresponding  position  on  the 
east  end  of  the  chapel  is  a  fresco  by  Perugino, 
restored  in  modern  times.  We  see  the  up- 
rights of  two  crosses,  but  no  actual  cruci- 
fixion. Madonna  is  supported  by  attendants, 
St.  Mary  Magdalene  looks  upwards,  and 
St.  Francis  kneels  and  clings  to  the  foot  of 
the  cross. 


36       The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

On  the  right  wall  of  the  chapel,  on  the 
outside,  there  are  remains  of  a  fresco  and  an 
inscription  to  the  memory  of  Pietro  di 
Catana,  who  died  in  122 1.  So  many  miracles 
were  worked  by  its  virtues  that  Francis 
ordered  that  no  more  should  be  done,  and 
after  that  its  power  ceased. 

About  two  miles  from  Sta.  Maria  degli 
Angeli,  on  the  road  to  Spello,  there  is  the 
church  which  has  been  known  as  that  of 
Rivo  Torto,  the  place  to  which  St.  Francis 
and  his  brethren  went  on  their  return  from 
receiving  the  approbation  of  Pope  Innocent 
III.  In  the  church  some  small  cells  are 
shown  which  have  been  said  to  be  those 
used  by  St.  Francis.  It  is  now  believed  that 
this  church  is  not  the  place  connected  with 
the  life  of  the  brethren. 

The  Church  of  S.  Damiano 

The  church  of  S.  Damiano  is  an  almost 
unchanged  record  of  the  primitive  surround- 
ings amongst  which  St.  Francis  and  his 
early  followers  ^passed  their  lives. 


Monuments 


37 


The  simple  chapel  with  its  rough  coarse 
furniture  and  the  tiny  dwelling-rooms  at- 
tached are  just  as  they  were  when  Sta.  Chiara 
and  the  women  who  followed  her  example 
lived  here  a  life  of  holy  poverty.  The  fol- 
lowers of  Francis  were  not  at  first  divided 
into  orders,  and  there  was  no  definite  or- 
ganization. The  life  which  the  master  him- 
self led  was  the  pattern  followed  by  the 
disciples,  and  simple  rules  were  given  to 
them  by  him  to  meet  the  conditions  as  they 
arose. 

S.  Damiano  is  associated  with  two  mo- 
mentous experiences  in  the  spiritual  life  of 
St.  Francis.  It  was  here  that  he  first  devoted 
himself  to  the  service  of  God,  and  it  was  in 
the  work  of  restoring  the  ruined  church  that 
he  made  himself  equal  to  the  humblest. 

During  the  time  when  he  had  become 
dissatisfied  with  his  way  of  life,  but  had  not 
resolved  to  separate  himself  from  it,  he  went 
frequently  to  pray  in  the  old  chapel.  While 
kneeling  before  a  Byzantine  crucifix  he  be- 
lieved that  he  heard  a  voice  saying,  Fran- 
cis, go  and  restore  My  church.** 

Obeying  the  command  literally,  the  young 


38       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

man  sold  some  of  his  father's  cloth  in  the 
market  at  Foligno  and  came  back  to  S. 
Damiano  with  the  money,  which  he  offered 
to  the  priest. 

This  act  was  decisive  in  separating  him 
from  his  old  life,  for  in  order  to  escape  from 
the  anger  of  his  father  he  left  his  home  and 
took  refuge  in  the  chapel.  When  sum- 
moned by  the  magistrates  of  Assisi,  at  the 
instance  of  his  father,  he  replied  that  as  he 
had  become  the  servant  of  the  Church  it  was 
before  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal  that  he 
should  appear. 

The  bishop  advised  him  to  renounce  all 
that  he  owned  from  his  parents.  Francis, 
fulfilling  the  injunction  to  the  letter,  stripped 
off  his  clothes  and  laid  them  at  his  father's 
feet,  with  the  words,  Now  I  can  say,  *  Our 
Father,  who  art  in  heaven.'  " 

Soon  after  this  he  began  the  labour  of 
restoring  the  chapel  of  S.  Damiano.  He 
went  from  door  to  door  begging  for  money 
or  for  materials  for  the  building,  carrying 
the  stones  which  were  given  to  him  upon  his 
shoulders.  The  work  of  restoration  was 
finished  about  the  year  1208.    S.  Damiano 


Monuments 


39 


is  associated  not  only  with  St.  Francis  but 
with  Sta.  Chiara,  the  first  woman  who 
adopted  the  Franciscan  rule. 

The  chapel  had  been  given  to  St.  Francis 
by  the  Benedictine  monks  of  Monte  Subasio, 
and  it  became  the  home  of  Sta.  Chiara  soon 
after  her  act  of  rentmciation  in  1 2 1 2 .  Within 
a  short  time  she  was  joined  by  a  few  other 
women,  and  they  received  from  St.  Francis 
a  rule  of  life  very  similar  to  that  which  was 
given  to  the  brethren.  St.  Francis  undertook 
that  he  and  his  followers  should  supply  all 
the  wants  of  the  sisters,  either  by  their 
labour  or  by  the  gathering  of  alms.  In  ex- 
change, Sta.  Chiara  and  her  companions 
rendered  service  to  the  brethren  by  tending 
the  sick  and  by  making  fair  linen  cloth 
for  the  furnishing  of  the  altars  of  poor 
churches. 

S.  Damiano  preserves  various  records  of 
the  life  of  labour  and  devotion  spent  by  the 

Poor  Clares  within  its  walls,  but  there 
is  no  visible  record  of  the  visit  which  St. 
Francis  paid  when  he  composed  the  Canticle 
of  the  Sun.''  It  was  in  1224  that  the  saint, 
on  his  return  from  Monte  della  Vernia,  spent 


40       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

some  weeks  in  a  little  reed  hut  which  Sta. 
Chiara  had  built  for  him  in  the  garden. 

Francis  was  suffering  not  only  in  body 
but  also  in  mind.  He  was  weighed  down  by 
illness,  his  sight  was  almost  gone,  and  he 
was  burdened  with  a  sense  of  discourage- 
ment. The  generalship  of  the  order  had 
been  resigned  to  others  two  or  three  years 
before,  and  Francis  now  found  himself  in 
continual  conflict  with  the  more  politic  and 
more  worldly  schemes  of  the  leaders.  In 
the  garden  of  S.  Damiano,  in  the  midst  of 
the  familiar  scenes  of  his  first  enthusiasm, 
something  of  his  old  fervid  joy  in  living  came 
back  to  him,  and  he  composed  the  Canticle 
of  the  Sun.''  In  this  song  he  praises  God 
for  the  goodness  of  living,  for  the  stin,  moon, 
stars,  water,  wind,  fire,  and  earth.  We  and 
they  are  parts  of  the  same  creation.  They 
are  our  helpful  brothers  and  sisters.  He 
thanks  God  also  for  His  love  and  mercy, 
and  lastly  for  His  gift  of  our  sister  Death. 

The  author,  well  pleased  with  his  song, 
began  to  lay  plans  how  some  of  the  brethren 
should  be  sent  out  as  Joculatores  Domini,'' 
minstrels  of  God,  and  should  sing  the  praises 


Monuments 


41 


of  the  created  things  everywhere.  After 
having  preached  and  sung  he  wished  that 
they  should  say  to  the  people,  All  the  pay- 
ment that  we  want  is  that  you  should  per- 
severe in  penitence." 

The  church  stands  on  the  slope  of  the  hill 
about  half  a  mile  beyond  the  walls  of  the 
town.  The  approach  to  the  inconspicuous 
building  is  by  a  steep  path  through  an  olive 
garden. 

There  is  a  little  courtyard  in  front  of  the 
church,  and  entering  it,  we  see  in  front  of 
us  on  the  end  wall  of  the  building  a  damaged 
fresco  illustrating  an  incident  in  the  life  of 
Sta.  Chiara. 

In  1234  a  body  of  Saracen  troops,  led  by 
one  of  the  generals  of  Frederick  11. ,  passed 
through  Umbria,  attacking  and  pillaging 
the  towns  as  they  went.  On  their  way  to 
Assisi  they  came  to  the  convent  of  S.  Da- 
miano,  and  began  to  assail  the  building. 
The  soldiers  were  already  motmting  the 
ladders  raised  against  the  walls  when  Sta. 
Chiara,  carrying  the  Pix  containing  the 
Host  in  front  of  her,  appeared  at  the  little 
window.    Kneeling  down  she  began  to  sing, 


42       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Thou  hast  rebuked  the  heathen,  Thou 
hast  put  out  their  name  for  ever  and  ever/' 
At  the  sound  of  her  fearless  voice  the  assail- 
ants, abashed  and  discomfited,  withdrew 
from  the  attack  and  left  both  the  convent 
and  the  city  unmolested. 

Under  the  portico,  to  the  right  of  the 
entrance  into  the  church,  is  a  chapel  which 
was  added  in  the  sixteenth  century,  with 
frescoes  by  Tiberio  d'Assisi. 

The  picture  represents  the  Virgin  and 
Child  enthroned,  with  S.  Bernardino  and 
St.  Jerome  on  the  left,  and  St.  Francis  and 
Sta.  Chiara  on  the  right.  The  small  figure 
of  a  nun  kneeling  beside  Sta.  Chiara  is  said 
to  represent  her  sister  Agnes.  S.  Bernardino 
of  Siena  came  to  Assisi  in  1425.  He  preached 
to  large  crowds  of  the  inhabitants,  exhorting 
them  particularly  against  the  love  of  personal 
adornment  and  of  games  of  chance.  A 
monogram  of  the  name  of  Jesus  was  carried 
in  procession  through  the  streets,  and  the 
townspeople  laid  aside  all  work  to  attend 
the  sermons  of  the  saint. 

Entering  the  church  we  find  a  small  building 
with  a  low  vaulted  roof.   There  are  damaged 


Monuments 


43 


frescoes  upon  the  smoke-blackened  walls,  of 
small  value  as  works  of  art.  Above  the 
altar,  which  stands  against  the  wall  to  the 
left  on  entering,  is  a  cupboard  with  a  number 
of  relics  of  Sta.  Chiara. 

The  censer  and  chalice  used  by  her  and 
the  bell  which  summoned  the  sisters  to 
office  are  shown.  They  are  of  the  simplest 
description,  the  fit  possessions  of  one  who 
carried  out  the  ideal  of  holy  poverty  con- 
sistently through  life.  On  the  shelf  is  one 
of  the  loaves  of  bread  which  she  blessed 
when  Innocent  IV.  came  to  visit  her.  The 
cupboard  also  contains  a  breviary  written 
by  Frate  Leone,  and  a  bit  of  the  cord  of 
St.  Francis. 

A  small  chapel  leading  out  of  the  nave  on 
the  right  was  added  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  contains  a  carved  crucifix  by 
Innocenzo  da  Palermo  (1635). 

Behind  the  high  altar  is  the  old  choir  of 
Sta.  Chiara,  with  the  primitive  wooden  stalls 
and  reading-desk.  A  list  of  the  names  of 
the  sisters  in  the  time  of  St.  Francis  is 
shown  here,  and  a  hole  in  the  wall  near  the 
altar  is  pointed  out  as  the  place  where  St. 


44       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Francis  hid  when  he  was  pursued  by  his 
father. 

A  number  of  small  rooms  with  low  roofs 
and  worn  brick  floors  lead  out  of  the  choir. 
A  stone  upon  the  wall  of  one  of  the  passages 
marks  the  burial-place  of  the  first  followers 
of  Sta.  Chiara. 

Upstairs,  the  oratory  is  of  the  same  simple 
and  primitive  character.  There  are  no  works 
of  art  to  be  seen  here  of  any  value ;  there  is 
only  the  faithful  record  of  a  life  of  voluntary 
self-denial.  In  the  month  of  May,  the  year 
1228,  Gregory  IX.  came  to  Assisi  for  the 
purpose  of  arranging  the  preliminaries  for 
the  canonization  of  St.  Francis,  and  turned 
aside  on  his  journey  to  visit  Sta.  Chiara  at 
S.  Damiano.  The  Pope  had  already  ad- 
dressed many  letters  of  encouragement  to 
the  foundress  of  the  Poor  Clares,''  for 
whom  he  evidently  entertained  a  warm 
admiration.  At  the  same  time  he  persist- 
ently tried  to  persuade  Sta.  Chiara  to  modify 
the  rule  of  living  without  possessions.  He 
endeavoured  also  to  restrict  the  intercourse 
which  existed  between  the  brothers  and 
sisters,  and  forbade  the  Frati  to  preach  in 


Monuments 


45 


S.  Damiano  without  the  permission  of  the 
Holy  See.  Sta.  Chiara,  however,  maintained 
an  uninterrupted  friendship  with  those  of 
the  brethren  who  had  shared  with  her  the 
disciple's  enthusiastic  beHef  in  their  master's 
ideal.  When  she  died  in  the  convent  in 
1253,  three  of  the  brethren  stood  beside  her 
death-bed. 

The  Hermitage  of  the  Car  cert 

This  small  convent  is  built  on  the  sides  of 
Monte  Subasio.  The  path  leaves  Assisi  by 
the  gate  at  the  end  of  the  town  farthest 
from  S.  Francesco,  and  from  this  point  one 
or  one  and  a  half  hours  ought  to  be  allowed 
for  the  walk. 

Originally  a  little  chapel  was  built  here  by 
the  Benedictines,  and  since  the  time  of 
Francis  a  network  of  small  chapels,  a  few 
sleeping-cells,  and  a  refectory  have  existed. 
In  the  woods  round  about  there  are  caves 
associated  with  the  names  of  the  early  Fran- 
ciscans, and  to  these  places  they  retired  for 
solitary  contemplation.  Perhaps  here  more 
than  elsewhere  it  is  possible  to  realize  the 


46       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

daily  life  of  the  early  Franciscans,  and  no- 
where else  is  the  sense  of  primitive  sim- 
plicity so  complete. 

The  visitor  enters  a  small  courtyard,  in 
the  centre  of  which  is  a  well  said  to  have 
been  built  by  S.  Bernardino  of  Siena,  the 
spring  itself  being  the  result  of  a  miracle 
worked  by  St.  Francis.  From  this  court 
we  enter  the  chapel  called  after  S.  Bernar- 
dino; it  is  some  twenty-one  feet  long  by 
sixteen  feet  broad.  In  it  are  preserved  relics 
of  St.  Francis :  — 

1.  The  tabernacle  for  the  sacrament  used 
in  his  time. 

2.  A  chalice  of  the  same  period. 

3.  A  pillow  used  by  St.  Francis. 

4.  The  cord  of  Brother  Egidio. 

5.  The  cross  and  hair  shirt  of  St.  Francis. 
At  the  end  of  the  chapel  are  five  little 

stalls,  the  second  of  which  is  traditionally 
assigned  to  St.  Francis. 

From  this  comparatively  large  chapel  we 
pass  into  the  Cappella  Primitiva.  This  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  chapel  used  by 
St.  Francis;  it  has  no  window,  and  is  only 
about  twelve  feet  long  by  six  feet  broad. 


Monuments 


47 


To  the  left,  three  steps  lead  up  into  the 
choir  of  S.  Bernardino;  round  it  there  are 
twelve  stalls,  and  beside  these  there  is  room 
for  nothing  but  a  reading-stand.  The 
sacristy  which  serves  for  all  these  chapels 
is  about  six  feet  by  four  feet  six  inches, 
and  it  is  lighted  by  a  window  no  larger 
than  a  pane  of  glass.  At  the  entrance  to  the 
sacristy  there  is  a  trap-door,  and  passing 
down  about  fifteen  steps  the  chamber  of 
St.  Francis  is  reached.  Like  many  other 
parts  of  the  building,  it  rests  on  the  live 
rock.  The  space  occupied  by  the  bed  is 
shown.  The  room  measures  about  nine 
feet  by  six  feet.  Next  to  this  bed  space  is 
an  oratory  where  St.  Francis  prayed. 

The  doors  by  which  these  chambers  are 
entered  are  so  small  that  no  ordinary  person 
can  stand  upright,  and  the  width  is  strictly 
in  proportion.  Outside  the  oratory  is  an 
opening  leading  down  into  the  gorge  below 
it;  it  was  by  this  passage  that  the  devil 
escaped  when  he  tempted  St.  Francis  and 
was  beaten  off  by  the  saint. 

Returning  to  the  monastery  the  small  bed- 
chambers built  against  the  live  rock  may  be 


48       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

seen.  Below  these  is  the  refectory.  At  the 
end  of  one  of  the  tables  the  place  of  S. 
Bernardino  is  shown.  The  wooded  gorge  in 
which  the  conventual  buildings  stand  is 
most  picturesque,  and  the  views  over  the 
vale  of  Spoleto,  both  from  the  convent  and 
from  the  path  leading  to  it,  are  exceedingly 
fine. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  CHURCH  OF  S.  FRANCESCO 

General  Notes  upon  the  Building 

FRANCIS  died  on  the  4th  October,  1226. 
It  is  said  that  he  desired  to  be  buried 
on  the  hill  where  criminals  were  executed, 
known  as  the  CoUe  del  Inferno.  The  story 
does  not  seem  to  rest  on  soimd  authority, 
but  the  fact  that  such  a  legend  became 
current  shows  the  popular  estimate  of  the 
desire  which  Francis  had  for  self-abasement. 

On  the  day  after  his  death  the  body  was 
carried  by  way  of  S.  Damiano  up  to  Assisi 
and  laid  in  S.  Giorgio,  now  part  of  the  church 
of  Sta.  Chiara.  Francis  was  canonized  by 
Pope  Gregory  IX.  on  the  1 6th  July,  1228, 
and  next  day  the  foundation  of  the  church 
of  S.  Francesco  is  said  to  have  been  laid. 
The  first  architect  was  a  certain  Jacobus  or 

49 


50       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Giacomo.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  in 
the  service  of  Frederick  II.,  who  was  friendly 
with  Frate  EHas,  the  general  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan order.  The  brethren  worked  at  the 
building,  and  under  the  energetic  direction 
of  the  general  it  was  so  far  finished  in  1230, 
that  a  general  chapter  of  the  order  was  held 
in  the  convent,  and  the  body  of  St.  Francis 
was  translated  from  S.  Giorgio  on  the  24th 
May.  It  is  said  that,  in  order  to  prevent  a 
forcible  seizure,  it  was  planned  between  the 
magistrates  and  Frate  Elias  that  at  a  certain 
point  in  the  procession  soldiers  should  sur- 
round the  coffin  and  hurry  it  into  the  church, 
excluding  all  but  the  brethren.  Whether 
this  be  true  or  not  the  place  of  burial  was 
known  to  very  few.  In  the  year  181 8  the 
tomb  was  discovered  and  opened,  and  the 
remains  of  the  body  were  found.  In  1232 
Filippo  da  Campello  appears  as  architect  of 
the  building.  He  was  still  at  work  in  1253. 
In  1236  it  is  recorded  that  Giunta  Pisano 
painted  a  great  cross  with  Frate  Elias  at 
the  foot;  but  this  has  disappeared.  In  1239 
the  building  of  the  Campanile  was  sufficiently 
advanced  to  receive  a  bell  made  by  Bar- 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  51 

tolomeus,  a  Pisan;  it  bore  the  inscription 
Christ  conquers,  Christ  reigns,  Christ  rules/' 
In  1246  the  commune  fixed  the  Kmits  of  the 
piazza  in  front  of  the  church  so  as  to  prevent 
houses  being  built  nearer  to  it.  In  1253 
Pope  Innocent  IV.  consecrated  the  great 
altar  of  the  lower  church.  It  is  formed 
of  a  single  stone  brought  from  Con- 
stantinople. The  lower  church  as  built  by 
Frate  Elias  consisted  of  a  simple  nave, 
transepts,  and  shallow  choir,  following  the 
plan  of  the  upper  church  as  we  see  it  to-day. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  side  chapels  were 
added  and  the  church  assumed  the  form 
that  it  now  has. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century 
(about  13 10)  two  brothers  of  the  Orsini 
family,  Napoleone  and  Giovanni,  built  the 
chapels  at  the  ends  of  the  transepts,  viz. 
the  chapel  of  St.  Nicholas  or  of  the  Holy 
Sacrament,  and  the  chapel  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist. 

Gentile  Partino  da  Montefiore  (Cardinal, 
1298)  was  the  founder  of  the  chapel  of  St. 
Martin  and  the  chapel  of  St.  Louis  the  King 
opposite  to  it. 


52       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

The  chapel  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  was 
founded,  or  perhaps  only  finished,  by  Te- 
baldo  Pontano  di  Todi,  who  was  Bishop  of 
Assisi  from  1314  to  1329. 

The  chapel  of  St.  Catherine  or  del  Croce- 
fisso  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Cardinal 
Egidio  Albornoz  in  1353. 

Pope  Sixtus  IV.  (1471-1484)  had  been 
general  of  the  order  before  he  became  Pope, 
and  his  reign  was  a  time  of  activity  at  S. 
Francesco.  Under  the  general  Sansoni  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  restoration,  and  the 
vestibule  to  the  lower  church  was  added. 
The  small  burial-ground  opening  out  of  the 
chapel  of  St.  Anthony  the  Abbot  was  also 
built  in  1478. 

The  church  of  S.  Francesco  has  its  choirs 
to  the  west  and  its  main  entrances  at  the 
eastern  end.  For  the  purposes  of  descrip- 
tion, however,  it  has  been  thought  best  to 
consider  the  orientation  from  an  ecclesias- 
tical point  of  view  rather  than  from  the 
natural.  The  choirs,  therefore,  are  treated 
as  if  they  were  at  the  east  end,  and  when  the 
visitor  stands  in  the  nave  and  looks  to  the 


CHURCH  OF  S.  FRANCESCO 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco 


altar,  the  transepts  and  chapels  to  the 
right  hand  are  called  southern,  those  to  the 
left  northern.  The  plan  of  the  upper  church 
is  too  simple  to  need  any  detailed  description ; 
that  of  the  lower  is  more  difficult.  On  the 
groimd  plan  the  chapels,  etc.,  are  indicated 
by  Roman  numerals.  It  will  save  time  if 
the  traveller  will  begin  by  going  rotmd  the 
church,  using  the  Ground  Plan  I.  to  familiar- 
ize himself  with  the  various  points  of  interest, 
somewhat  as  follows :  — 

The  visitor  enters  the  lower  church  by 
the  doorway  of  1478  (XI.  on  Plan  I.).  On 
the  vault  of  the  arch  overhead  there  is  a 
worthless  picture  of  St.  Francis  in  Glory. 
The  significant  part  of  the  legend  attached 
to  it  may  be  rendered:  Stay  thy  steps  to 
rejoice,  O  traveller.  Now  thou  drawest  near 
to  the  hill  of  Paradise.  This  is  the  glorious 
basilica  dedicated  to  the  divine  Francis  of 
Assisi,  the  restorer  of  the  faUing  Church  of 
Christ." 

To  the  right  of  the  entrance  transept  there 
is:  — 

I.  A  Gothic  tomb  with  an  urn  supposed 


54       The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

to  be  that  of  Catherine,  daughter  of  the 
Queen  of  Cyprus. 

2.  A  Gothic  tomb  supposed  to  be  that  of 
Hecuba,  Queen  of  Cyprus,  who  died  in  Assisi 
in  1240. 

3.  The  Chapel  of  St.  Anthony  the  Abbot, 
containing  the  tombs  of  a  Count  of  Spoleto 
and  his  son.  Out  of  this  chapel  a  door 
leads  to  a  small  graveyard  (1478)  surroimded 
by  cloisters.  The  entrance  transept  is  closed 
by  the  Chapel  of  St.  Catherine  or  del  Croce- 
fisso  (X.  on  the  plan). 

Returning  to  the  entrance  door  (XL  on 
the  plan),  there  is  to  the  left:  — 

1.  The  small  chapel  of  St.  Sebastian. 

2.  A  fresco  attributed  to  Ottaviano  Nelli. 
Madonna  is  seated  on  a  throne,  on  the 
pedestals  of  which  are  the  four  cardinal 
virtues.  To  the  left  stand  SS.  Francis  and 
Anthony  the  Abbot,  and  to  the  right  a 
bishop. 

Passing  into  the  nave  the  first  chapel  to 
the  left  is  that  of  St.  Martin  (XIII.  on  Plan 
I.).  The  first  to  the  right,  that  of  St.  Louis 
the  King,  or  St.  Stephen  (VIII.  on  the 
plan).   The  second  chapel  to  the  left  is  that 


56       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

of  St.  Peter  of  Alcantara  (XIV.  on  the  plan). 
The  second  chapel  to  the  right  is  that  of 
St.  Anthony  of  Padua  (VII.  on  the  plan). 
The  pulpit  (XV.  on  the  plan)  occupies  the 
next  bay  to  the  left.  The  third  chapel  to 
the  right  is  that  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene 
(VI.  on  the  plan). 

We  next  pass  into  the  transepts,  in  the 
centre  of  which  (1.  on  the  plan)  stands  the 
high  altar.  Turning  to  the  right  into  the 
southern  transept  there  is  the  altar  originally 
dedicated  to  Maria  Virgine  Immacolata  (II. 
on  the  plan).  Behind  it  five  of  the  first 
disciples  of  St.  Francis  are  buried.  The 
southern  transept  is  closed  by  the  chapel  of 
St.  Nicholas  or  the  chapel  of  the  Holy 
Sacrament  (V.  on  the  plan).  Returning  to 
the  high  altar  and  passing  to  the  left  into  the 
northern  transept  there  is  the  altar  originally 
dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Evangelist  (III. 
on  the  plan).  Behind  it  are  buried  five  of  the 
early  disciples.  Near  to  this  altar  is  the 
entrance  to  the  sacristy,  and  the  stair  which 
leads  to  the  upper  church. 

We  have  in  the  next  place  to  examine 
the  various  systems  of  frescoes  throughout 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  57 

the  upper  and  lower  churches.  Those  in 
the  upper  are  distinguished  by  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  those  in  the  lower  church  by 
Arabic  numerals. 

The  paintings  have  such  various  interests 
that  it  has  been  thought  best  in  the  first 
place  to  group  them  according  to  the  artistic 
influences  which  they  appear  to  represent, 
and  then  to  suggest  the  probable  significance 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  work  in  the  light 
of  the  ideas  of  the  time,  and  particularly 
with  regard  to  the  theories  of  St.  Francis  and 
his  disciples.  In  addition  to  such  general 
considerations  some  description  of  the  fres- 
coes which  appear  to  be  of  most  interest 
has  been  attempted. 

Artistic  Influences 

The  overthrow  of  classical  civilization  in 
Western  Europe  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies of  our  era  destroyed  for  a  time  all 
possibiHty  of  a  native  art  in  Italy.  Through- 
out the  turmoil  and  desolation  of  the  Gothic, 
the  Lombard,  and  the  Frankish  conquests 
the   Church   alone   maintained   any  sem- 


58       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

blance  of  imperial  traditions.  It  was  the 
Church  also  that  first  felt  the  want  of  an 
art  that  might  enable  her  to  christianize 
the  newly  converted  barbarians. 

When  dogma  could  not  be  expressed  in 
terms  of  the  written  word,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  make  an  appeal  to  the  eye  and  to 
the  feelings. 

For  many  centuries  the  Church  had  to 
depend  on  the  east  for  the  pictures,  the 
mosaics,  and  the  sculpture  by  means  of 
which  the  Christian  faith  was  made  familiar 
to  the  barbarians.  Constantinople  was  more 
fortunate  than  Rome,  for  from  the  foim- 
dation  of  the  city  up  to  the  time  of  the 
fourth  crusade  (1204)  no  foreign  invaders 
entered  her  gates.  There  was  thus  a  con- 
tinuous tradition  from  the  days  of  Constan- 
tine  onwards.  It  was  to  men  trained  in  this 
civilization  that  western  Europe  mainly 
owed  the  revival  of  art. 

The  process  of  recovery  was  very  slow, 
but  in  the  twelfth  century  there  are  un- 
mistakable signs  that  the  barbarian  con- 
querors of  southern  Europe  had  begun  to 
learn  effectively  from  their  Greek  teachers. 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  59 

In  sculpture  the  first  advance  was  made 
in  France,  and  in  painting  in  Italy. 

During  the  thirteenth  century  there  is 
evidence  that  the  descendants  of  Roman 
and  barbarian  had  become  a  new  race  full  of 
energy  and  power,  destined  to  transform  the 
world. 

It  is  in  the  church  of  San  Francesco  that 
the  first  efforts  of  this  new  race  in  the  art  of 
painting  may  be  most  easily  studied.  We 
can  see  here  how  a  new  style  grew  up  in 
which  new  views  of  life  were  depicted  by 
new  methods. 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
the  native  painter  depended  upon  Byzantine 
custom,  which  he  frequently  comprehended 
in  a  very  incomplete  manner. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century 
Tuscan  art  became  a  free  and  natural  ex- 
ponent of  the  nation  which  had  been  fused 
out  of  many  generations  of  Etruscan,  Latin, 
and  barbarian  ancestors.  Vasari  says  that 
Giotto  banished  the  rude  Greek  manner.  It 
could  be  more  truly  said  that  he  banished 
the  rude  native  manner. 

In  the  following  list  of  the  frescoes  in 


6o       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

S.  Francesco,  an  attempt  is  made  to  place 
them  in  order  of  their  tendency  towards 
the  full  development  of  Florentine  art. 

It  begins  with  those  frescoes  which  show 
most  Byzantine  influence.  These  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  works  of  artists  who  under- 
stood neither  the  good  of  the  old  tradition 
nor  the  force  of  the  new  life.  This  crude 
native  art  is  followed  by  the  Tuscan  frescoes. 
These  are  arranged  tmder  the  two  schools 
of  Siena  and  Florence,  the  latter  being  re- 
garded as  the  most  complete  expression  of 
the  new  manner.  The  list  is  not  chrono- 
logical, for  there  are  no  documents  known 
at  present  by  which  the  dates  of  the  frescoes 
can  be  fixed,  nor  does  it  indicate  any  sup- 
posed order  of  artistic  capacity.  It  is  only 
an  attempt  to  place  the  pictures  according 
to  tendency,  beginning  with  Byzantine  work 
and  ending  with  Florentine. 

I.  Frescoes  in  the  Byzantine  Manner 

Scenes  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. — 

Nave  of  the  upper  church. 
Christ,  St.  Francis,  Madonna,  and  St.  John 

the  Baptist. —  Roof  of  the  upper  church. 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  6i 

II.  Transition  from  Byzantine  to  Tuscan  Style 

Madonna  and  Child  (attributed  to  Cima- 
bue) . —  Southern  transept,  lower  church. 

III.  Frescoes  in  the  Native  Manner 

Acts  of  the  Apostles. —  Southern  transept, 

upper  church. 
Death  and  Assumption  of  the  Virgin. — 

Choir,  upper  church. 
Life  of  Christ  and  St.   Francis. —  Nave, 

lower  church. 
The  Four  Evangelists. —  Roof,  upper  church. 
Apocalyptic  scenes,  etc. —  Northern  transept, 

upper  church. 
The   Four  Latin   Doctors, —  Roof,  upper 

church. 

IV.  Frescoes  in  the  Sienese  Manner 

Half-lengths  of  Franciscan  saints. —  Southern 
transept,  lower  church. 

Acts  of  St.  Martin. —  Chapel  of  St.  Martin, 
lower  church. 

Series  of  Passion  scenes. —  Northern  tran- 
sept, lower  church. 

Madonna  and  Child,  with  St.  John  the 


62       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Baptist  and  St.  Francis. —  Northern 
transept,  lower  church. 

V.  Frescoes  in  the  Florentine  Manner 

Chapel  of  St.  Catherine.—  Lower  church. 
Chapel  of  St.  Nicholas. —  Lower  church. 
Life  of  St.  Francis. —  Nave,  upper  church. 
Fresco  over  the  pulpit. —  Nave,  lower  church. 
Chapel   of   St.    Mary   Magdalene. —  Lower 
church. 

Life  of  Christ. —  Southern  transept,  lower 
church. 

Allegorical  frescoes  over  the  high  altar.— 
Lower  church. 

If  the  frescoes  are  studied  in  some  such 
order  as  the  foregoing,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  abandonment  of  the  old  manner  did  not 
always  lead  to  improvement.  The  native 
artist  in  his  efforts  to  stand  alone  was 
hampered  by  the  visible  failings  of  Byzantine 
painters  without  being  inspired  by  the 
imagination  that  often  turned  these  faults 
into  a  form  of  virtue. 

Nor  were  the  artists  before  the  time  of 
Giotto  gifted  with  the  high  intellectiual  pur- 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  63 

pose  that  caused  the  abstractions  of  the 
Greek  painters  to  become  a  magnificent 
means  of  rendering  their  speculations  on 
human  Hfe. 

But  though  the  advance  of  painting  was 
very'  slow  it  never  halted,  nor  did  it  stand 
alone.  The  arts  of  sculpture  and  mosaic 
developed,  however,  at  an  earlier  period 
than  painting,  and  we  must  for  a  moment 
consider  them,  if  we  would  understand  the 
movement  which  resulted  in  the  Sienese 
and  Florentine  schools  of  the  fourteenth 
century. 

Artistic  Influences  Preceding  Giotto 

The  most  promising  art  of  the  thirteenth 
century  was  that  of  sculpture. 

North  of  the  Apennines  the  growth  of 
power  may  be  gauged  by  a  comparison  be- 
tween the  rude  work  on  S.  Michele  at  Pavia 
with  the  sculpture  of  Antelami  at  Parma 
and  Borgo  San  Donino.  The  improvement 
is  based  on  the  union  of  the  vigour  and 
imagination  of  the  north  with  the  classical 
instinct  of  the  south. 

In  like  manner  Tuscan  sculpture,  in  the 


64       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Romanesque  manner,  finds  its  highest  ex- 
pression in  the  group  of  St.  Martin  and  the 
beggar,  on  the  facade  of  the  Duomo  at 
Lucca.  This  work  was  executed  about  1250, 
and  it  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  fusion 
of  northern  and  classical  influences.  It 
marks  the  birth  of  a  new  style  which  is  no 
longer  Latin  nor  Teuton,  but  Italian, 

During  the  thirteenth  century,  when 
Romanesque  sculptors  were  perfecting  this 
Italian  style,  Niccolo  Pisano  (i2o6?-i28o?), 
passing  by  Byzantine  models,  went  straight 
to  the  antique.  He  thus  originated  a  new 
point  of  view  which  was  destined  to  influence 
the  development  of  art.  Giovanni  Pisano 
(d.  1320),  the  son  and  pupil  of  Niccolo, 
owed  his  training  to  the  classical  inclination 
of  his  father,  but  his  inspiration  was  the 
same  as  that  of  the  sculptors  of  Chartres  and 
Amiens. 

In  Rome  the  name  of  Vassalectus  on  the 
cloisters  of  St.  John  Lateran  (i 220-1 230) 
recalls  a  revival  of  the  art  of  the  marble 
mason.  The  Cosmati  family  also  made  many 
designs  for  pulpits,  lamps,  altar  fronts,  and 
candelabra.    The  work  is  characterized  by 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  65 

a  sense  of  style,  and  is  remarkable  for  his 
classical  grace  and  refinement. 

With  one  exception  no  remarkable  work 
in  mosaic  belongs  to  the  thirteenth  century. 
Byzantine  tradition  held  its  own  in  the 
atrium  of  S.  Marco  at  Venice,  and  the  old 
manner  prevails  in  the  mosaics  of  the  trib- 
une of  the  baptistery  at  Florence  (about 
1225). 

No  other  work  of  importance  appears  till 
1290.  At  this  time  Pietro  Cavallini,  a 
Roman  artist,  made  some  remarkable  pic- 
tures under  the  semi-dome  of  Sta.  Maria  in 
Trastevere.  They  show  vigour  and  dra- 
matic power,  and  they  are  distinctly  in 
advance  of  the  frescoes  in  the  upper  church 
at  Assisi.  It  is  noteworthy  that  when  Giotto 
went  to  Rome  (1298?)  he  is  said  to  have 
chosen  Cavallini  as  his  assistant.  Except 
perhaps  at  Subiaco,  none  of  the  important 
series  of  frescoes  belonging  to  the  thirteenth 
century  show  signs  of  new  life  until  we  come 
to  the  paintings  at  Assisi.  Of  these  the 
scenes  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in 
the  nave  of  the  upper  church  are  the  most 
interesting  examples.  They  are  fine  instances 


66       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


of  the  state  of  painting  before  the  time  of 
Giotto.  The  art  is  still  stiffened  by  memories 
of  the  old  style,  but  they  are  striking  and 
dignified  pictures. 

In  all  the  various  arts  there  may  be  noted 
at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  a  blend- 
ing of  classical  feeling  with  northern  imagina- 
tion and  strength.  It  is  to  the  organic  imion 
of  these  two  tendencies  that  we  owe  the  new 
style  of  Giotto.  The  development  arising 
from  the  fusion  of  Latin  and  Teuton  took 
two  distinct  lines  in  Tuscany.  The  schools 
of  Siena  and  Florence  both  sprang  from  this 
new  force.  The  former  represented  the 
emotional  and  devout,  the  latter  the  intel- 
lectual and  scientific  energies  of  the  time. 
The  Sienese  painters  moved  neither  so  far 
nor  so  fast  as  the  Florentines,  and  we  there- 
fore consider  them  first. 


Sienese  Branch  of  the  Tuscan  School 

The  Sienese  school  is  represented  by  many 
examples  in  the  lower  church.  To  Simone 
Martini  (1285?- 1344)  are  attributed  the  half- 
length  figures  in  the  southern  transept  and 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  67 

the  scenes  from  the  Hfe  of  St.  Martin  in  the 
chapel  dedicated  in  his  name.  The  Passion 
scenes,  and  the  half-length  of  Madonna  and 
Child  with  SS.  John  the  Baptist  and  Francis, 
in  the  northern  transept,  are  usually  attrib- 
uted to  Pietro  Lorenzetti  (1348). 

The  attachment  of  the  Sienese  painters  to 
Byzantine  tradition  was  stronger  than  it  was 
among  the  Florentines.  Their  painting  is 
characterized  by  a  religious  feeHng,  which 
appeals  to  the  emotions  rather  than  to  the 
thoughts  of  men.  Instead  of  the  dramatic 
vigour  and  the  intensity  of  life  such  as  we 
find  in  Giotto,  the  Sienese  masters  realize 
themselves  in  mystical  sentiment. 

The  half-length  figures  in  the  southern 
transept  have  a  detached  air  as  if  they  only 
belonged  to  this  life  by  accident.  They  are 
gracious  and  benign  (except  St.  Francis), 
with  just  a  faint  shadow  of  melancholy. 
The  singularity  of  the  Sienese  type,  though 
it  is  not  beautiful,  yields  itself  to  the  realiza- 
tion of  these  saintly  shadows.  They  are  not 
contemplative  souls,  for  that  would  imply 
thought;  they  are  not  emotional,  for  that 
would  imply  feeling.   The  limpid  colour,  the 


68       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

abstract  form,  and  the  richness  of  such  deco- 
ration as  the  artist  permitted  himself  to  use, 
all  conduce  to  the  unearthly  fascination  of 
these  elusive  figures.  They  seem  ready  to 
vanish  before  our  eyes,  and  yet  never  cease 
to  haunt  our  memories. 

The  frescoes  in  the  Chapel  of  St.  Martin 
are  supposed  to  be  by  the  same  hand,  and 
they  have  something  of  the  same  grace.  If 
there  is  a  curious  air  of  arrested  life,  there 
is  also  beauty  of  detail  and  a  refinement  of 
feeling  that  cannot  fail  to  charm.  The  fres- 
coes make  an  appeal  to  us  in  a  way  that  does 
not  reach  to  any  very  deep  emotion,  nor  to 
any  wide  intellectual  outlook,  but  no  one  can 
fail  to  cherish  the  recollection  of  such  culti- 
vated and  delicate  art.  The  most  striking 
work  in  the  chapel  is  in  the  figures  on  the 
imder  surface  of  the  entrance  arch  —  Louis 
IX.  of  France  stands  before  us  with  the  true 
dignity  of  a  king,  and  something  of  the  spirit 
of  a  saint. 

The  Passion  frescoes  in  the  northern  tran- 
sept differ  greatly  from  the  other  Sienese 
work  in  the  church.  There  is  a  want  of 
ordered  disposition,  there  is  an  extravagance 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  69 

in  expression,  a  lack  of  quality  in  type,  and 
a  failure  in  dramatic  capacity  which  is  very 
remarkable.  The  colour  is  wanting  in  purity 
and  refinement;  this  may,  however,  be  owing 
to  restoration.  It  is  true  that  the  history  of 
the  Passion  makes  a  greater  demand  on  the 
artist  than  any  other  works  common  in 
churches,  but  the  painter  of  the  northern 
transept  has  failed  to  give  dignified  and  perti- 
nent expression  to  these  scenes  of  triumph, 
of  treachery,  of  suffering,  of  grief,  and  of 
victory.  There  is  vigour  and  sincerity  and  a 
magnificence  in  scale  which  prevents  the 
pictures  from  being  insignificant,  but  they 
fall  below  the  level  of  Sienese  and  Florentine 
work  of  the  period. 

The  Florentine  Branch  of  the  Tuscan  School 

Among  the  artistic  interests  which  are 
gathered  about  the  Church  of  S.  Francesco 
it  is  the  influence  of  Giotto  that  stands  out 
beyond  all  others.  It  was  the  genius  of  this 
man  that  transformed  Italian  painting. 
What  the  artists  of  S.  Denis,  Chartres,  and 
Amiens  did  for  sculpture  Giotto  did  for 
painting. 


70       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

He  lived  in  Florence  (127 6- 1337)  when  the 
power  of  the  city  was  at  its  height,  and  at  a 
time  when  the  force  of  individual  men  and 
of  vigorous  personality  was  making  a  small 
Italian  town  a  centre  of  influence  felt  through- 
out the  world.  There  were  fewer  obstacles 
than  usual  to  the  development  of  individual 
character,  for  the  communes  had  beaten  the 
empire,  and  they  had  subdued  the  feudal 
aristocracy.  So  great  was  the  personal  dis- 
tinction of  Florentine  citizens  that  on  the 
occasion  of  the  presentation  of  ambassadors 
to  Boniface  VIII.  at  the  jubilee  of  1300,  the 
number  of  Florentines  among  them  caused 
him  to  say  that,  to  the  four  old  elements  of 
the  world  there  must  now  be  added  a  fifth, 
viz.,  the  Florentines. 

Giotto  was  a  true  son  of  his  vigorous  and 
highly  intellectual  society.  The  fire  and  glow 
of  his  genius  enabled  him  to  express  the 
ultimate  ideas  on  which  the  life  of  the  newly 
awakened  world  w^as  based. 

The  hierarchical  life  resting  on  authority 
was  losing  its  hold  on  cultivated  Italian 
society.  The  natural  life  of  the  modern  world 
was  becoming  the  moving  force  among  men. 


PAOLO  UCCELLO.  — PORTRAIT  OF  GIOTTO 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  71 

The  art  of  Giotto  is  the  expression  of  this  new 
existence. 

It  was  the  same  in  other  human  relations. 
The  spiritual  appeal  of  St.  Francis  was  made 
directly  to  the  individual. 

In  literature  Dante  took  the  speech  of  the 
common  people,  the  vulgar  tongue,  and  in  it 
he  wrote  his  great  poem.  So  Hkewise  Giotto 
regarded  the  common  life  of  ordinary  men; 
he  appealed  to  feelings  and  ideas  which  all 
share.  He  painted  the  mysteries  of  existence 
so  that,  in  a  measure,  they  might  be  com- 
prehended by  every  one,  and  yet  he  under- 
stood the  deeper  spiritual  significance  of  his 
subject.  In  the  hands  of  many  of  his  fol- 
lowers the  outward  character  of  his  style  was 
copied,  without  a  sense  of  its  inner  qualities. 

We  often  have  cause  to  regret  the  great 
Byzantine  tradition,  in  which  the  mystery 
is  never  forgotten  although  its  directly 
human  relationship  may  be  overlooked. 

The  mind  of  Giotto  did  not  yield  to  ex- 
tremes. He  could  understand  at  once  the 
feeling  of  the  mystic  and  the  active  life  of  the 
ordinary  man.  He  could  paint  the  holy 
poverty "  of  St.  Francis  with  marvellous 


72       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

insight,  and  he  wrote  a  poem  questioning 
the  wisdom  of  the  ideal  of  life  which  it  in- 
volved. The  Presentation  of  the  Child  in  the 
Temple  is  the  figure  of  a  great  mystery,  and 
at  the  same  time  he  invests  it  with  the  senti- 
ment of  the  relation  of  mother  and  child. 
He  knows  how  to  pass  by  the  immaterial, 
and  yet  he  avoids  becoming  too  purely  ab- 
stract. His  knowledge  of  perspective  was 
imperfect,  his  control  of  drapery  was  in- 
complete, his  observation  of  natural  forms 
and  of  landscape  was  more  or  less  elementary, 
and  yet  he  can  place  his  men  and  women  be- 
fore us  as  real  beings,  full  of  life  and  purpose. 
He  causes  them  to  move  easily,  he  renders 
emotion  for  the  most  part  naturally,  he 
expresses  thought  with  significance. 

The  gaiety  and  purity  of  his  colour,  the 
power  and  simplicity  of  his  line,  the  direct- 
ness and  force  of  his  design,  place  him  in 
relation  with  all  men.  The  man  of  the  world 
and  the  mystic  will  each  find  what  he  seeks. 
Giotto  is  a  great  dramatist,  a  brilliant  colour- 
ist,  a  powerful  draughtsman,  a  master  of 
design,  an  able  thinker,  and  a  man  full  of 
human  sympathies. 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  73 

No  agreement  has  yet  been  reached  as  to 
what  Giotto  painted  in  S.  Francesco.  The 
series  of  the  Hfe  of  St.  Francis  in  the  upper 
church,  the  series  of  the  Hfe  of  Christ  in  the 
southern  transept  of  the  lower  church,  and 
the  frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, have  all  been  attributed  to  him,  and 
have  all  been  given  to  other  masters  as  well. 
The  four  frescoes  over  the  great  altar  in  the 
lower  church  are  probably  the  only  works  of 
which  his  authorship  has  been  unchallenged. 
But  though  it  is  impossible  to  say  certainly 
what  he  himself  painted,  it  is  to  his  influence 
that  we  owe  all  or  most  of  the  above-men- 
tioned frescoes. 

The  Significance  of  the  Pictures  in 
S.  Francesco 

The  purpose  of  the  frescoes  in  the  upper 
and  lower  churches  may  be  most  easily  under- 
stood if  they  are  taken  in  the  following 
order :  — 

I.  In  the  nave,  choir ,  and  transepts  of  the 
upper  church,  the  frescoes  deal  with  the 
general  relation  between  God  and  man,  as 
set  forth  in  Scripture. 


The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


II.  In  the  southern  and  northern  transepts 
of  the  lower  church  there  is  the  history  of  the 
Incarnation  and  Resurrection. 

III.  In  the  chapels  of  the  lower  church,  the 
acts  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  St.  Stephen, 
St.  Lawrence,  St.  Catherine,  St.  Nicholas, 
and  St.  Martin  are  described. 

IV.  The  Franciscan  ideal  is  painted  over 
the  high  altar  of  the  lower  church,  and  the  acts 
of  St.  Francis  in  the  nave  of  the  upper  church. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  CHURCH  OP  S.  FRANCESCO  —  THE  UPPER 

CHURCH 


PART  from  the  Franciscan  pictures  the 


^  series  in  the  upper  church  gives  a 
complete  history  of  the  world  in  its  relation 
to  man.  The  scenes  of  Creation  are  followed 
by  the  history  of  the  Fall  and  the  story  of  the 
Patriarchs  (on  the  right  wall  of  the  nave). 
Opposite  to  these  frescoes  is  an  account  of 
the  Incarnation  (on  the  left  wall  of  the  nave), 
which  finds  its  completion  in  the  Life  and 
Death  of  the  Virgin  and  her  Coronation  in 
Heaven  (in  the  choir).  The  Gospel  of  the 
Incarnation  was  preached  by  the  Apostles 
(southern  transept),  it  was  recorded  by  the 
Evangelists  (vault) ,  and  taught  by  the  Doc- 
tors (vault) .  The  whole  is  brought  to  a  con- 
clusion in  the  Vision  of  the  End  of  the  World 
(northern  transept),  where  on  the  one  hand 
the  prayers  of  the  saints  are  offered  up  before 


7S 


76       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

the  throne,  and  on  the  other  there  is  depicted 
the  Fall  of  Babylon,  typical  of  the  fate  of 
sinners. 

The  disposition  of  scenes  from  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  in  relation  to  each  other, 
such  as  we  find  in  the  nave  of  the  upper 
church,  is  common  in  mediaeval  thought. 
The  law  written  by  the  finger  of  God  is  a 
foreshadowing  of  the  Gospel.  The  men  of 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  did 
not  regard  the  history  of  the  world  as  divided 
into  ancient and  modern  ;  they  had 
a  stronger  sense  of  historical  continuity  than 
we  have,  and  the  change  from  the  old  to  the 
new  was  no  more  than  a  passing  from  the 
type  to  its  realization.  St.  Augustine,  speak- 
ing of  the  Old  Testament,  says:  "  In  every 
page,  while  I  pursue  my  search  as  a  son  of 
Adam  in  the  sweat  of  my  brow,  Christ  either 
openly  or  covertly  meets  me  and  refreshes 
me."  Christ  was  killed  in  Abel;  He  was 
mocked  in  Noah ;  He  was  sacrificed  in  Isaac ; 
He  was  made  a  servant  in  Jacob;  He  was 
sold  in  Joseph. 

The  Old  and  the  New  Testaments,  the 
writings  of  the   Prophets,   Apostles,  and 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco 


Evangelists,  the  tin  veiling  of  the  Vision, 
and  the  teaching  of  the  Doctors,  all  had  one 
end  —  they  are  the  record  of  faith  {Par. 
xxiv.  91-96),  they  encourage  our  hope  {Par, 
XXV.  88-90),  they  animate  our  love  {Par. 
xxvi.  25-27).  We  realize  the  purpose  of  the 
design  of  the  upper  church  as  a  whole  when 
Dante  declares  that  his  belief  in  God  comes 
through  Moses,  through  the  Prophets  and 
Psalms,  through  the  Gospel  and  the  writings 
of  the  Apostles  {Par.  xxiv.  130-138). 

The  series  of  frescoes  from  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  are  painted  on  the  nave  of 
the  upper  church.  They  are  arranged  in 
upper  and  lower  courses. 

PLAN  II.  (p.  78) 

A.  God  creates  the  World.  He  appears 
in  the  act  of  blessing,  Roimd  about  Him 
there  is  a  double  circle  of  light;  in  the  inner 
circle  there  are  angels,  in  the  outer  some  faint 
traces  suggest  symbols  of  the  heavens  which 
the  angels  move  and  guide.  Below  this 
central  figure  the  Dove,  with  a  circular 
nimbus,  floats  over  the  water.  To  the  left 
of  the  Dove  is  a  symbol  of  the  sun,  and  to  the 


78       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

right  that  of  the  moon.  In  the  water  there 
are  fish  of  many  kinds ;  on  the  land  there  are 
plants  and  trees,  with  birds  resting  in  the 
branches.  Four-footed  beasts  are  represented 


Plan  II.  —  Nave  of  the  Upper  Church  of  San  Francesco, 
^  Assisi 


by  sheep,  etc.  Creation  is  complete  except 
for  man. 

B.  God  animates  the  form  of  Adam.  This 
fresco  is  much  damaged. 

C.  Creation  of  Eve. 

D.  Temptation  and  Fall.     Little  more 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  79 

than  the  fine  figure  of  Adam  is  left.  It  is 
of  good  proportion,  and  shows  artistic  ca- 
pacity. 

E.  The  Expulsion  from  Paradise.  The 
figures  of  Adam  and  Eve  are  inferior  to  the 
single  figure  of  Adam  in  the  Temptation. 
The  action  of  the  angel  is  exaggerated. 

F,  G,  H,  destroyed. 

The  lower  series  from  the  Old  Testament 
begin  again  at  the  end  nearest  the  transept, 

K.  Noah  building  the  Ark.  The  hand  of 
God  appears  in  the  sky  warning  Noah  to 
build  the  ark.  Noah  is  seated  overlooking 
his  sons,  who  work  with  nervous  energy. 

L.  The  Entering  into  the  Ark.  This  fresco 
is  much  destroyed. 

M.  Sacrifice  of  Isaac.  The  child  is  bound 
hand  and  foot  on  an  altar  of  elaborate  con- 
struction. Abraham's  left  hand  rests  on  the 
child's  head,  his  right  arm  is  raised,  and  he 
wields  a  scimitar  with  a  vigour  and  good-will 
that  is  decidedly  repulsive. 

N.  Three  Angels  appear  to  Abraham. 
The  fresco  is  much  damaged,  but  two  of  the 
angels  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  staid  gravity 
and  dignity  of  expression  and  bearing  in  the 


8o       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

principal  angel  is  very  striking.  They  have 
heavily  braided  hair,  and  immense  wings 
crudely  coloured  as  we  see  them  now.  The 
figure  of  Abraham  kneeling  before  the  angels 
is  nearly  gone. 

O.  The  Deception  of  Isaac.  The  figure  of 
Isaac  is  almost  destroyed,  and  of  Rebecca, 
who  superintends  the  deceit,  little  more  than 
the  face  is  left.  Jacob  has  a  nimbus,  his  hands 
are  covered  with  skin,  and  his  father  feels 
them  to  make  sure  of  the  identity  of  his  son. 
The  figure  of  Jacob  is  a  remarkably  fine 
example  of  the  work  which  was  done  before 
the  time  of  Giotto.  There  is  in  it  a  high  sense 
of  quality  and  style. 

P.  Esau  brings  Food  to  his  Father.  The 
blind  patriarch  is  finely  rendered.  Esau, 
and  a  woman  who  stands  looking  on,  are  of 
a  poor  type. 

Q.  Joseph  put  into  a  Pit  by  his  Brethren. 
This  fresco  is  nearly  destroyed.  A  few  sheep 
may  be  seen  on  the  rocks. 

R.  Joseph's  Brethren  kneel  before  Him. 
A  servant  in  the  background  shows  the  gold 
cup  which  has  been  found  in  Benjamin's 
sack. 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  8i 


The  New  Testament  series  on  the  left  wall 
of  the  nave  include :  — 

S.  The  Annunciation.  Almost  entirely- 
gone. 

T.  Destroyed. 

U.  The  Nativity.  The  Virgin  reclines  in 
a  fashion  usually  associated  with  Byzantine 
design.  The  Child  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the 
cave,  and  behind  are  the  ox  and  the  ass. 
Joseph  sits  with  his  head  resting  on  one  hand. 
Over  the  roof  of  the  cave  the  angels  sing  the 

Gloria  in  excelsis,"  and  one  of  them  an- 
nounces the  birth  to  the  shepherds,  who  look 
up  in  questioning  wonder.  Sheep  browse  in 
the  foreground. 

V.  Destroyed.  Probably  the  Adoration 
of  the  Magi  was  represented. 

W.  Presentation  in  the  Temple.  This 
fresco  is  nearly  destroyed. 

X.  Flight  into  Egypt.  Destroyed. 

Y.  Christ  with  the  Doctors  in  the  Temple. 
Much  damaged. 

Z.  Baptism  of  Christ.    Much  damaged. 

New  Testament  scenes  in  the  lower  course, 
beginning  at  the  transept  end  of  the  wall 
are :  — 


82       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


AA.  The  Marriage  in  Cana.  An  elaborate 
feast  is  set  out.  The  bride  is  dressed  with 
great  magnificence.  She  wears  a  crown  and 
many  jewels.  At  her  side  is  the  judge  of  the 
feast,  represented  by  a  form  of  classical  type. 
On  the  left  are  the  nimbed  heads  of  Christ 
and  His  mother. 

BB.  Destroyed. 

CC.  The  Betrayal.  A  crowded  picture  of 
inferior  design.  The  types  are  poor,  and  the 
action  of  Peter,  who  cuts  off  the  servant's 
ear,  is  grotesque. 

DD.  Destroyed. 

EE.  The  Bearing  of  the  Cross.  May  be 
just  discerned. 

FF.  The  Crucifixion.  This  picture  is  in 
very  poor  condition. 

GG.  The  Entombment.  The  mother  bends 
over  her  Son's  head.  St.  Mary  Magdalene 
raises  one  of  His  feet.  St.  John  takes 
a  hand.  Two  finely  draped  women  stand 
in  the  back-grotmd.  Angels  weep  and 
wail  in  the  sky.  The  fresco  is  much  dam- 
aged. 

HH.  The  three  Maries  at  the  Tomb. 
Nearly  destroyed. 


SCHOOL  OF  GIOTTO.  —  MADONNA  AND  CHILD 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  83 


The  series  is  continued  on  the  end  wall  of 
the  nave:  — 

KK.  The  Ascension  of  Christ.  Christ  is 
seen  rising  into  the  heavens.  An  angel  of  fine 
design,  and  with  brilHant  wings,  exhorts  the 
Apostles. 

LL.  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Dove, 
amidst  rays,  descends  upon  Madonna  and 
the  Apostles.   The  picture  is  badly  damaged. 

Over  the  centre  of  the  western  door  is  a 
medallion  with  Madonna  and  Child. 

Above  the  Ascension  is  a  bust  of  St.  Peter, 
and  above  the  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is 
a  bust  of  St.  Paul. 

The  Choir 

The  upper  church  was  dedicated  in  the 
name  of  S.  Maria  Assimta  in  Cielo.  It  is 
therefore  natural  that  the  life  of  the  Virgin 
should  be  painted  in  the  choir. 

The  history  of  Mary  also  forms  a  continu- 
ation of  the  history  on  the  left  wall  of  the 
nave,  in  so  far  as  it  leads  to  the  consumma- 
tion of  the  bond  of  union  between  mankind 
and  Christ  in  His  human  relations. 

The  frescoes  are  in  great  part  only  shadows, 


84       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


and  some  of  the  subjects  can  only  be  doubt- 
fully determined. 

PLAN  III  (p.  85) 

(a.)  Uncertain  subject, 
(b.)  A  striking  landscape;    subject  un- 
certain. 

(c.)  Perhaps  the  Nativity  of  the  Virgin, 
(d.)  Perhaps  the  Betrothal  of  Joseph  and 
Mary. 

(e.)  The  Apostles  assembled  at  the  Death- 
bed of  the  Virgin.  Mary  being  seized  with  a 
strong  desire  to  be  with  her  Son,  an  angel 
made  known  her  approaching  end.  She 
asked  that  she  might  be  allowed  to  see  her 
sons  and  brethren  the  Apostles  before  she 
died,  and  they  were  miraculously  brought 
from  the  various  countries  where  they  were 
preaching. 

(f.)  After  the  Apostles  were  gathered, 
Christ  came  in  the  night  with  the  choirs  of 
patriarchs,  martyrs,  confessors,  and  virgins. 
They  all  made  songs  and  music  aroimd  the 
Virgin,  and  in  the  morning  the  soul  left  the 
body  and  was  carried  up  in  the  arms  of  Christ 

(g.)  The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin.  The 


\ 


86       The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

body  having  been  laid  in  a  tomb  by  the  order 
of  Christ,  the  Apostles  watched  beside  it. 
The  fresco  shows  three  ranks  of  those  who 
waited.  Nearest  to  the  tomb  are  saints,  each 
with  bare  head  and  a  circular  nimbus.  The 
other  ranks  are  crowned  and  nimbed.  On 
the  third  day  Christ  appeared  and  asked 
how  He  ought  to  do  honour  to  His  mother? 
It  was  answered  that  as  Christ  had  con- 
quered death  and  reigned  for  ever  over  the 
world,  He  should  raise  His  mother  and  set 
her  on  His  right  hand.  We  see  the  empty 
tomb,  and  over  the  ranks  of  saints  Christ  and 
the  Virgin  rise  up  in  an  aureole,  supported 
by  angels. 

(h.)  Christ  and  the  Virgin  in  Glory. 

In  the  galleries  and  the  arcading  above 
these  pictures  there  are  to  the  left  two  angels 
with  Madonna,  and  three  nimbed  saints  be- 
low, and  to  the  right  three  Apostles  (?),  with 
ecclesiastics  below. 

Southern  Transept 

PLAN  IV  (p.  89) 

This  part  of  the  church  was  dedicated  in 
the  name  of  the  Apostles,  who  are  painted 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  87 

in  the  galleries,  six  on  each  side  of  the  tran- 
sept, (r.)  The  two  lines  are  headed  by  SS. 
Peter  and  Paul.  They  are  tall,  striking 
figures,  finely  draped,  and  there  is  no  ten- 
dency to  make  the  heads  unduly  large. 

Below  are  various  acts  of  the  Apostles. 

(s.)  Probably  the  healing  of  the  lame  man 
by  SS.  Peter  and  John  at  the  beautiful  gate 
of  the  Temple. 

(t.)  Probably  a  record  of  works  of  healing 
such  as  are  described  in  Acts  v.  6:  There 
came  also  a  multitude  out  of  the  cities 
round  about  imto  Jerusalem,  bringing  sick 
folk  and  them  which  were  vexed  with 
unclean  spirits,  and  they  were  healed  every 
one." 

(u.)  Death  of  Simon  Magus.  Simon  being 
in  favour  with  the  Emperor  Nero,  and  having 
by  enchantment  worked  various  seeming 
miracles,  was  withstood  by  SS.  Peter  and 
Paul.  As  a  final  effort  to  defeat  the  Apostles 
he  announced  that  he  would  ascend  into 
heaven.  He  climbed  a  high  tower  on  the 
Capitol,  and  threw  himself  off.  He  was 
supported  by  devils  until  St.  Peter  com- 
manded them  to  let  him  go,  and  then  he  fell 


88       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

and  died.  The  Roman  Emperor  (?),  attended 
by  soldiers,  watches  the  scene. 

(v.)  Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter  tinder  the 
Emperor  Nero.  St.  Peter  willed  to  be  cru- 
cified head  downvv^ards,  as  he  said  it  was  not 
fitting  that  he  should  die  as  Christ  had  done. 
It  is  usually  supposed  that  the  pyramid  in 
the  picture  represents  that  of  Cestius  in 
Rome. 

(w.)  Destroyed.  Little  can  be  seen  except 
a  rocky  landscape. 

(x.)  At  the  sides  of  the  window  there  are 
remains  of  a  fresco  showing  St.  Paul,  probably 
before  Nero.  After  the  Apostle  had  con- 
fessed Christ,  the  emperor  ordered  him  to 
be  beheaded. 

(y.)  A  Crucifixion.  The  figure  on  the 
cross  is  large  and  heavy,  the  eyes  are  closed, 
there  is  no  inscription  over  the  head,  and  the 
feet  are  separated.  The  lance  and  sponge 
bearers  are  in  their  usual  places.  Madonna 
falls  fainting  into  the  arm.s  of  those  about  her. 
The  disposition  of  the  crowd  of  figures  is  not 
well  managed.  Angels  fly  round  the  Christ, 
and  one  of  them  catches  the  blood  from  the 
side. 


90       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

(z.)  In  the  lunette  above  the  Crucifixion 
is  the  remains  of  a  picture  of  the  Transfigura- 
tion. 

(aa.)  The  fresco  in  the  lunette  opposite 
has  been  destroyed. 

Northern  Transept,  Upper  Church 
PLAN  V  (p.  93) 

This  part  of  the  church  was  dedicated  in 
the  name  of  St.  Michael  and  the  holy  angels. 

(dd.)  In  the  galleries,  on  the  right  and  left 
walls,  there  are  large  and  magnificent  figures 
of  angels,  three  on  each  side. 

(ee.)  Above  the  gallery,  to  the  right,  are 
six  half-lengths  of  angels. 

(ff.)  St.  Michael  and  two  other  angels 
thrust  down  the  great  dragon  and  two  other 
evil  spirits. 

The  frescoes  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  walls 
refer  to  the  vision  of  the  end  of  the  world  as 
it  was  unveiled  in  the  book  of  Revelation, 
(gg.)  This  fresco  is  badly  damaged,  but  it  is 
possible  to  see  a  representation  based  upon, 
but  not  exactly  following,  the  vision  de- 
scribed in  Rev.  v. 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  gi 

In  the  upper  part  of  the  picture  is  an 
almond-shaped  aureole,  enclosing  a  throne 
on  which  lies  the  Divine  Child.  At  the  sides 
of  the  aureole  are  circular  glories,  enclosing 
the  four  living  things  —  the  angel  of  St. 
Matthew  and  the  eagle  of  St.  John  above, 
the  bull  of  St.  Luke  and  the  lion  of  St. 
Mark  below,  each  having  a  nimbus. 

In  two  long  lines  converging  towards  the 
centre  of  the  picture  are  the  twenty-four 
Elders,  each  wearing  a  crown,  and  in  some 
cases  it  is  possible  to  make  out  their  harps. 
Where  these  two  lines  meet  are  two  vessels, 

the  two  golden  phials  full  of  odours,  which 
are  the  prayers  of  the  saints/'  Behind  each 
of  the  lines  of  elders  are  grouped  saints  and 
angels.  The  Lamb  has  been  found  worthy 
to  open  the  book,  and  the  four  and  twenty 
elders  sing  their  new  song  of  praise.  Judg- 
ment is  set,  and  the  seals  are  about  to  be 
opened.  The  method  of  representing  the 
Child  is  unusual. 

(hh.)  This  fresco  is  very  much  destroyed. 
It  probably  represents  the  scene  immediately 
preceding  the  sealing  of  the  servants  of  God. 
Four  angels  stand  outside  the  walls  of  a 


92       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

city.  They  are  the  four  angels  standing 
on  the  four  corners  of  the  earth,  holding 
the  four  winds,  who  receive  the  command 
to  hurt  nothing  until  the  sealing  of  the 
hundred  and  forty-four  thousand  has  been 
finished. 

(kk.)  The  Seven  Angels  preparing  to 
sound  the  Seven  Trumpets »  In  the  upper 
part  of  the  picture  Christ  sits  in  an  almond- 
shaped  aureole.  He  shows  the  wounds  of  the 
Passion.  To  the  right  are  three  angels  with 
trumpets,  and  to  the  left  there  are  four. 
In  the  lowest  part  of  the  picture  there  are 
a  number  of  saints  kneeling  in  adoration,  the 
principal  figure  of  the  group  to  the  left  being 
a  Franciscan.  In  the  centre  is  an  altar;  at 
the  side  an  angel  floats  in  the  air,  probably 
he  who  had  the  golden  censer,  having  incense 
which  he  offers  with  the  prayers  of  all  the 
saints  upon  the  golden  altar  which  was  before 
the  throne    (Rev.  viii.  3). 

(mm.)  Probably   the   Fall   of  Babylon. 
The  city  has  **  become  the  habitation  of 
devils  and  the  hold  of  every  foul  spirit,  and 
a  cage  of  every  unclean  and  hateful  bird 
(Rev.  xviii.  2). 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco 


San  Francesco,  Assisi 


94       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

(nn.)  Another  scene  from  the  Apocalypse, 
almost  entirely  destroyed. 

(oo.)  The  wall  to  the  left  is  covered  with  a 
large  picture  of  the  Crucifixion.  In  spite  of  its 
ruinous  state,  there  is  a  great  air  about  this 
fresco.  It  gives  a  sense  of  strength  and  power, 
and  it  must  in  its  original  state  have  been 
one  of  the  most  striking  of  the  whole  series 
of  works  in  the  upper  church.  The  figure  on 
the  cross  has  the  feet  divided ;  the  waist  cloth 
is  ample,  and  seems  to  flutter  in  the  breeze. 
There  is  some  attempt  to  realize  the  anatomy 
of  the  body,  with  the  tinpleasant  result  often 
seen  in  early  pictures.  The  eyes  appear  to  be 
closed.  Angels  fly  through  the  air  as  in  the 
picture  in  the  southern  transept.  At  the  foot 
of  the  cross,  to  the  left,  there  is  a  woman  who 
throws  herself  into  an  attitude  of  wild  despair, 
while  another  figure  gathers  his  robes  about 
him  and  stretches  out  his  arm  with  the  air  of 
a  Roman  orator.  The  group  of  women  are 
well  placed,  and  they  have  a  good  effect. 

Roof  of  the  U pper  Church 

The  main  design  on  the  roof  of  the  upper 
church  is  that  in  the  second  bay  from  the 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco  95 

transept,  where  half-length  pictures  of  Christ, 
St.  Francis,  Madonna,  and  St.  John  the 
Baptist  occupy  the  triangular  spaces  of  the 
groining.  The  spaces  in  the  corners  are  filled 
by  angels,  with  outstretched  wings,  standing 
on  globes.  They  have  carefully  braided 
hair,  and  inexpressive  faces;  their  robes  are 
jewelled.  The  principal  figures  have  a  cer- 
tain stolid  and  fixed  expression.  The  whole 
design  shows  the  power  which  old  tradition 
had  upon  the  painter. 

The  frescoes  of  the  four  Evangelists, 
painted  on  the  vault  over  the  crossing,  belong 
to  the  native  school  of  art,  which  had  broken 
away  from  the  old  tradition  without  gaining 
facility  or  power  in  any  other  direction. 
Each  Evangelist  has  a  writing-table,  he  is 
attended  by  the  usual  symbol,  and  an  angel 
inspires  him  for  his  task.  The  church  archi- 
tecture affords  some  interesting  detail.  The 
style  has  points  of  likeness  with  that  of  the 
Apocalyptic  paintings  in  the  northern  tran- 
sept. Each  Evangelist  is  associated  with 
some  special  part  of  the  world,  St.  Matthew 
with  Judea,  St.  Mark  with  Italy,  St.  Luke 
with  Achaia,  and  St.  John  with  Asia. 


96       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

On  the  vault  at  the  west  end  of  the  nave  the 
four  doctors  of  the  Latin  Church  are  painted. 
St.  Gregory  is  inspired  by  the  Dove  on  his 
shoulder,  and  a  monk  sits  opposite  who 
writes  to  his  dictation.  The  other  doctors 
have  books  before  them  and  an  attendant 
monk  sits  opposite,  the  latter  little  more 
than  half  the  size  of  the  former.  The  doctors 
are  enthroned  on  massive  chairs,  the  attend- 
ants sit  in  a  loggia,  and  between  is  a  reading- 
desk.  The  accessories  are  elaborate,  the 
furniture  being  decorated  in  the  style  of 
Cosmati  mosaic.  Everything  indeed  is  done 
to  increase  the  impressiveness  and  dignity 
of  the  figures.  These  four  men  embody  the 
weight  and  authority  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
they  personify  the  unbending  and  imyielding 
spirit  of  dogma. 

Between  the  last  bay  of  the  nave  and  the 
western  wall  of  the  f  agade  of  the  upper  church 
there  is  a  small  bay  covered  with  an  ordinary 
arch.  On  it  are  painted  sixteen  figures, 
among  which  may  be  recognized  those  of 
St.  Francis,  Sta.  Chiara,  SS.  Dominic  and 
Peter  Martyr,  the  Bishop,  S.  Rufino,  S.  An- 
tonio of  Padua,  and  St.  Benedict.   They  are 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco 


stiff,  ascetic  forms,  representing  the  religious 
idea  in  a  state  of  equilibrium.  Though  they 
are  thus  very  far  from  suggesting  the  mendi- 
cant ideal,  they  have  a  distinct  character 
expressing  well  the  rule  of  ecclesiastical 
authority. 

Windows  —  U pper  Church 

Many  of  the  windows  in  the  upper  church 
have  fine  glass  in  them.  Parts  of  those  in  the 
choir  and  transepts  are  said  to  date  from  the 
thirteenth  century,  those  in  the  nave  belong 
either  to  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth;  there 
are  also  modern  restorations. 

The  windows  in  the  choir  and  transepts 
may  be  considered  together. 

(pp.)  Northern  transept  —  Creation  of  the 
World. 

(rr.)  Northern  transept  —  History  of  Adam 
and  Eve,  Cain  and  Abel. 

(k.)  To  the  right  in  the  choir  —  Life  of 
Christ,  from  the  Meeting  with  the  Doctors, 
up  to  the  Betrayal. 

(m. )  To  the  left  in  the  choir  —  Life  of  Christ 
from  the  Bearing  of  the  Cross,  to  the  Descent 
of  the  Holy  Spirit. 


gS        The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

(bb.)  Southern  transept  —  Manifestations  of 
Christ  between  the  Resurrection  and  Ascen- 
sion. In  the  windows  where  the  life  of  Christ 
is  treated  the  other  half  of  the  window  has 
scenes  from  the  Old  Testament,  supposed  to 
be  typical  of  the  event  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  has  opposite 
to  it  Moses  Descending  from  Motmt  Sinai; 
the  Resurrection,  and  Jonah  cast  up  by  the 
Whale;  Christ  Bearing  the  Cross,  and  Abra- 
ham Taking  Isaac  to  the  Sacrifice ;  the  Last 
Supper,  and  the  Passover;  the  Transfigura- 
tion, and  Moses  with  his  face  shining  as  he 
came  from  receiving  the  law;  the  Baptism 
of  Christ,  and  the  Crossing  of  the  Red  Sea, 
are  other  examples  of  this  parallelism. 

In  this  way  the  whole  history  from  the  Cre- 
ation of  the  World  is  worked  out  —  ending 
with  an  epitome  of  the  Last  Judgment,  in  the 
design  above  the  light  in  the  window  of  the 
southern  transept.  The  window  on  the  New 
Testament  wall  of  the  nave  nearest  the  choir 
has  scenes  from  the  story  of  the  Magi,  the 
Slaughter  of  the  Innocents,  the  Presentation, 
and  the  rods  laid  on  the  altar.  The  design  at 
the  bottom  of  the  third  window  from  the  choir 


The  Church  of  S.  Francesco 


on  the  same  side  is  to  be  remarked  for  the  re- 
lation between  Christ  and  St.  Francis  and 
Madonna  and  Child.  The  fourth  window 
from  the  choir  on  the  Old  Testament  side  of 
the  nave  has  a  series  of  scenes  from  the  history 
of  St.  Francis. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  LIFE  OF   ST.  FRANCIS  —  CONFORMITY 
TO   THAT  OF  CHRIST 

HIS  disciples  regarded  the  life  of  St.  Fran- 
cis as  the  most  complete  reflection  that 
we  have  been  permitted  to  know  of  the  life 
which  Christ  led  upon  earth.  The  following 
instances  where  the  parallel  has  been  drawn 
may  be  noted ;  others  will  occur  to  those  who 
keep  this  phase  of  the  Franciscan  ideal  in 
mind. 

1.  Above  the  entrance  door  of  the  lower  church 
the  arches  are  filled  with  panels.  On  one  is 
carved  the  Ascension  of  Christ  with  a  group 
of  disciples  below,  on  the  other  there  is  the 
Ascension  of  St.  Francis  with  a  like  group  of 
disciples. 

2.  The  pictures  on  the  nave  walls  of  the  lower 
church  were  probably  intended  to  point  to  the 

100 


ENTRANCE  TO  LOWER  CHURCH  OF  S.  FRANCESCO 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis  loi 


parallel  between  the  two  lives.  On  the  right 
as  we  face  the  high  altar  there  appear  to  be 
scenes  from  the  Crucifixion,  the  Deposition, 
and  the  Entombment  of  Christ.  On  the  left 
St.  Francis  renounces  the  world;  is  seen  in  a 
vision  supporting  the  Church ;  preaches  to  the 
birds;  receives  the  stigmata ;  and  is  buried. 

3.  In  the  northern  transept  of  the  lower  church 
the  Crucifixion  (No.  16)  has  opposite  to  it  St. 
Francis  receiving  the  stigm.ata,  the  intention 
being  to  suggest  the  parallel  between  the 
Passion  of  Christ  and  the  Passion  of  St.  Francis 
on  Monte  della  Vernia. 

4.  In  the  central  group  on  the  roof  of  the 
upper  church  Christ  is  painted  with  St.  Francis 
opposite,  and  at  the  sides  are  Madonna  and  St. 
John  the  Baptist. 

5.  The  lower  church  had  originally  only- 
three  altars:  the  high  altar  dedicated  in  the 
name  of  St.  Francis,  whose  bones  rest  beneath 
it;  that  to  the  right,  in  the  southern  transept, 
dedicated  in  the  name  of  Maria  Virgine  Imma- 
colata,  and  that  to  the  left  in  the  name  of  St. 
John  the  Evangelist.  If  the  church  be  con- 
sidered as  the  cross,  then  the  relative  position 
of  the  altars  suggests  that  St.  Francis  takes 


I02      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

the  place  of  Christ,  while  Madonna  and  St. 
John  the  Evangelist  stand  at  the  foot  of  the 
cross  as  usual. 

6.  Over  the  high  altar  in  the  lower  church 
Christ  presides  over  the  marriage  of  St.  Francis 
with  the  Holy  Lady  Poverty.  Poverty,  the 
spouse  of  Christ,  was  widowed  at  His  death  on 
the  cross,  and  now  she  becomes  the  spouse  of 
St.  Francis. 

Nave  of  the  Upper  Church 

The  distinctively  Franciscan  pictures  are 
included  in  the  following  series  and  in  the  four 
great  frescoes  over  the  high  altar  in  the  lower 
ghurch. 

The  life  of  St.  Francis,  as  painted  in  the 
upper  church,  begins  with  the  history  of  the 
saint  after  his  soul  had  been  touched  by  the 
love  of  God,  but  before  he  had  denied  the 
world.  This  series  of  frescoes  is  a  summing 
up  of  the  intention  of  the  whole  monument. 
We  have  seen  how  God  deals  with  men ;  we 
have  seen  the  description  of  the  life  of  Christ, 
by  means  of  which  men  entered  into  their 
true  relation  with  the  divine;  we  have  seen 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis 


how  by  Hves  of  faith,  of  rentinciation,  and  of 
love,  men  have  striven  to  unite  the  world  in 
the  new  ideal.  The  final  result  of  human 
effort  is  summed  up  in  the  life  of  St.  Francis, 
who  was,  in  the  words  of  his  disciples,  the 
Mirror  of  Perfection. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  we  see  the 
little  poor  man  of  Assisi  ''dimly  in  the  magnif- 
icence of  this  building.  These  pictures  de- 
scribe the  outward  and  visible  life  of  one  of 
the  two  princes  ordained  for  the  guidance  of 
the  Church  {Par,  xi.  35-36).  We  seem  to 
breathe  the  air  of  the  papal  court  rather  than 
that  of  the  Umbrian  valleys. 

The  following  account  is  derived  mainly 
from  Bonaventura's  Life  of  Saint  Francis. 

PLAN  II  (p.  78) 

(a  I.)  A  man  of  simple  mind  meets  Francis 
and  two  of  his  companions.  The  poor  man 
having  an  instinctive  insight  into  the  holiness 
of  the  youth,  spreads  his  cloak  on  the  groimd. 
Francis  steps  on  it  and  looks  at  him  who  offers 
the  service  with  a  gracious  air;  his  two  com- 
panions are  pleased  with  the  honour  done  to 


I04      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

their  friend,  while  two  elder  men  wonder  at 
what  they  regard  as  the  presumption  of  a 
yonng  man  in  accepting  such  a  distinction. 
These  emotions  are  rendered  in  the  simplest 
and  most  natural  way.  The  details  of  the 
figures,  such  as  the  hands  and  draperies,  show 
how  much  had  still  to  be  learned. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  the  Piazza  Grande.  The 
Temple  of  Minerva  is  curiously  translated  in 
terms  of  Gothic  feeling:  at  one  side  of  it  is  a 
church  with  pointed  windows  and  a  campanile 
of  the  usual  kind,  and  at  the  other  a  house  with 
a  series  of  open  balconies. 

(b  2.)  Francis  gives  his  cloak  to  a  poor 
nobleman.  Through  the  love  of  God  Francis 
has  learned  to  love  his  neighbour.  He  has  been 
touched  by  the  world-weary  and  downcast  air 
of  the  poor  nobleman,  and  with  courtly  benev- 
olence he  gives  his  cloak  to  him. 

High  on  the  hill  to  the  right  is  a  church  and 
monastery,  and  opposite  are  the  towers  of  a 
little  hill  city.  The  horse  from  which  Francis 
has  dismounted  is  badly  drawn,  but  the  natural 
way  in  which  it  turns  to  graze  at  the  wayside 
marks  a  new  feeling. 

(c  3.)  The  Vision  of  the  Palace.   The  sleep- 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis 


ing  Francis  saw  the  vision  of  a  great  palace 
covered  with  banners  and  decorations  bearing 
the  cognizance  of  the  cross.  Christ  appeared 
to  him,  and,  in  answer  to  the  query  as  to  the 
object  of  the  palace,  said,  it  is  for  thee  and 
thy  warriors/' 

Francis  tinderstood  this  as  a  call  to  knightly 
duty,  and  set  out  to  serve  a  great  count  in 
Apulia.  On  the  way  he  had  another  vision, 
in  which  God  spoke  to  him,  saying,  Francis, 
who  can  make  thee  into  the  best  knight  —  the 
master  or  the  servant?  "  Francis  replied, 
^^The  master.'^       Then,''  the  Lord  said, 

w^hy  dost  thou  leave  the  master  for  the  serv- 
ant? "  Francis  answered,  "  What  wilt  thou 
that  I  should  do,  O  my  Lord?  "  In  reply  he 
was  bidden  to  return  to  his  home,  and  was 
taught  the  spiritual  signification  of  the  vision 
of  the  palace. 

The  lower  part  of  the  palace  is  built  with 
pillar,  lintel  and  round  arches,  the  upper  part 
is  in  Gothic  style,  representing  the  change 
which  was  taking  place  during  the  thirteenth 
century. 

(d  4.)  Francis,  while  praying  in  S.  Damiano, 
hears  the  words  come  from  the  crucified 


io6      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

figure  on  the  cross,  Go,  Francis,  and  repair 
My  Church/'  Francis  kneels  in  a  loggia  open- 
ing into  the  building.  Believing  that  the  com- 
mand was  concerned  with  the  material  fabric 
of  the  church,  he  took  some  of  his  father's 
cloth  and  sold  it  at  Foligno,  so  that  he  might 
have  the  means  to  repair  S.  Damiano. 

(e  5.)  Francis  renounces  his  family  and  his 
earthly  inheritance.  His  father,  greatly  in- 
censed with  his  son,  haled  him  before  the 
bishop.  Francis,  hearing  his  father  coming, 
said,  Father,  I  am  not  afraid  if  you  beat  me 
or  imprison  me ;  I  am  content  to  endure  afflic- 
tion and  suffering,  because  I  deserve  it  for  my 
sins/'  When  they  appeared  before  the  bishop, 
so  that  he  might  renoimce  his  mother's  in- 
heritance as  his  father  desired,  he  humbly  took 
off  all  his  clothes  but  his  under-garment.  He 
threw  them  to  his  father,  and  renotmced  every 
temporal  inheritance,  whether  of  father  or 
mother,  saying,  Now  I  can  say.  Pater  Noster 
qui  es  in  coelis."  The  bishop,  seeing  so  much 
warmth  of  spirit,  took  him  to  his  arms,  and 
covered  him  with  the  folds  of  his  mantle. 
And  Francis  took  a  poor  garment  from  one  of 
the  bishop's  labourers,  and  so  he  was  clothed. 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis  107 


St.  Francis  stands  covered  by  the  bishop's 
robe  —  in  the  attitude  of  prayer,  which  is 
answered  by  the  appearance  of  a  hand  in  the 
sky. 

As  the  brethren  grew  in  numbers,  Francis 
wrote  a  form  of  Hving  in  simple  words,  found- 
ing it  in  everything  on  the  observance  of  the 
Gospel.  When  the  brethren  desired  the  con- 
firmation of  this  writing,  and  yet  were  afraid, 
Francis  saw  in  a  vision  a  great  tree,  and  he  was 
raised  up  so  that  he  might  touch  the  top.  It 
bowed  its  topmost  branches,  and  thus  was 
shown  the  condescension  of  the  Apostolic  See. 
So  Francis  and  the  brethren  went  to  Rome  and 
to  the  Lateran  to  present  their  petition.  But 
the  Pope  was  busy,  and  they  were  driven  away. 
That  night  the  Pope  saw  a  vision  of  a  palm 
branch  that  grew  into  a  mighty  tree,  and  divine 
wisdom  showed  him  that  this  was  the  poor 
man  who  had  been  refused.  Then  Francis 
was  sought  out,  and  brought  before  the  Pope, 
and  some  of  the  cardinals  doubted  by  reason 
of  the  strictness  of  the  rule.  One  of  them, 
however,  moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  declared 
it  was  naught  more  than  the  Gospel.  Then 
the  Pope  bade  Francis  pray  that  God  would 


io8       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

show  them  His  will,  and  he  so  spake  that  the 
Pope  knew  that  Christ  spoke  in  him.  That 
night  the  Pope  had  another  vision,  in  which 
he  saw  the  Church  of  St.  John  Lateran  about 
to  fall,  and  a  little  man  came  and  put  his  back 
under  it,  whereby  the  Pope  saw  that  it  was 
this  same  poor  man  who,  by  teaching  of  holy 
deeds  and  doctrine,  should  sustain  the  Church, 
and  therefore  he  gave  his  approbation  to  the 
rule. 

This  story  is  told  in  the  frescoes,  Nos.  f  6 
and  g  7.  St.  Francis  upholding  the  Church  in 
f  6,  is  very  remarkable ;  the  figure  stands  out 
as  the  finest  example  of  the  new  manner  in  the 
upper  church.  But  it  is  g  7  which  strikes  the 
full  note  of  the  coming  change  in  the  world. 

We  see  on  the  one  hand  the  Pope,  the  cardi- 
nals, the  bishops,  the  hierarchy  of  the  Church; 
on  the  other,  a  group  of  poor  men  kneeling 
humbly,  and  asking  for  nothing  but  to  be 
allowed  to  live  by  the  rule  of  the  Gospel.  Such 
is  the  outward  seeming,  but  the  kneeling  figure 
of  Francis  offering  his  simple  words,  is  the 
embodiment  of  the  spirit  of  individualism  in 
opposition  to  the  organized  system  of  the 
Church.    Men  were  no  longer  content  to  ap- 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis  109 


proach  the  truth  through  other  men,  even 
though  they  might  be  bishops  or  popes.  The 
spirit  within  each  man  must  approach  the 
Divine  Spirit  for  itself,  and  so  at  a  later  time, 
when  sore  pressed  by  ecclesiastical  authority, 
St.  Francis  refused  to  accept  any  rule  other 
than  "  that  which  had  been  mercifully  shown 
and  given"  to  him  ''by  the  Lord."  The 
painter  has  recognized  this  true  source  of 
spiritual  strength,  inasmuch  as  while  the  great 
churchmen  have  but  the  insignia  of  their  office, 
Francis  has  the  nimbus  of  divine  power. 

(h  8.)  St.  Francis  and  the  Car  of  Fire.  When 
the  brethren  were  living  at  Rivo  Torto,  Fran- 
cis went  to  Assisi  on  a  certain  Saturday,  so 
that  he  might  preach  on  the  next  day  in  the 
Duomo.  At  night,  when  some  of  the  brethren 
were  asleep  and  others  awake,  they  saw  a  car 
of  fire,  which  passed  three  times  through  the 
house.  Inspired  by  God,  they  knew  that  the 
chariot  was  their  father  Francis,  and  they  per- 
ceived that  the  vision  was  granted  to  show 
that  he  was  the  chariot  which  they  ought  to 
follow  as  if  he  had  been  another  Elias. 

(j  9.)  The  Throne  in  Heaven  reserved  for  St. 
Francis.    St.  Francis  and  Brother  Pacifico 


no      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

being  in  the  deserted  Church  of  St.  Peter  at 
Bovara,  near  Trevi,  St.  Francis  sent  the 
brother  to  the  leper  hospital,  and  he  himself 
spent  the  night  in  the  church,  where  he  was 
sorely  tempted.  In  the  morning  he  was  pray- 
ing when  Pacifico  rettirned,  and  to  this  latter 
there  was  granted  a  vision  of  the  thrones  in 
heaven. 

It  was  told  him  that  the  highest  had  been 
the  place  of  Lucifer,  and  that  in  his  stead  the 
humble  Francis  should  sit  in  it.  When  Brother 
Pacifico  thereafter  asked  Francis  of  himself,  he 
declared  that  he  was  the  greatest  sinner  in  the 
world,  and  so  Pacifico  saw  that  his  vision  was 
true,  and  that  Francis,  by  reason  of  his 
humility,  was  worthy  to  sit  on  the  throne  of 
Lucifer  (Mirror  of  Perfection,  p.  60). 

(k  10.)  The  Devils  driven  away  from  Arezzo. 
Francis,  coming  to  Arezzo,  found  commotion 
and  combat  among  the  citizens,  and  he  saw 
above  the  city  a  multitude  of  demons  who 
were  in  great  joy.  Francis,  knowing  by  the 
Spirit  that  they  were  the  cause  of  the  trouble 
in  the  city,  ordered  Brother  Silvestro  that  he 
should  command  these  devils  in  the  name  of 
God  so  that  immediately,  by  virtue  of  obedi- 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis  in 

ence,  they  should  depart.  And  Brother  Sil- 
vestro,  going  with  great  fervour  and  doing 
obedience  to  the  blessed  Francis,  the  devils  at 
once  departed  and  the  city  was  pacified. 
Francis,  finding  all  in  peace  and  concord, 
praised  God  that  by  virtue  of  holy  humility 
and  obedience,  Brother  Silvestro  had  chased 
away  so  great  malignity  of  pride. 

(1  II.)  St.  Francis  before  the  Sultan. 
Francis,  moved  by  the  desire  he  had  to  shed 
his  blood  for  the  increase  of  faith,  went  into 
Syria  and  travelled  to  the  coimtry  of  the  Sultan 
of  Babylon.  When  brought  before  the  Sultan 
and  questioned  as  to  his  business,  Francis 
answered,  I  am  sent  by  God  the  Most  High, 
and  not  by  any  man  of  this  world,  so  that  I  can 
show  to  thee  and  thy  people  the  way  of  salva- 
tion and  tell  to  thee  the  truth  of  the  gospel  of 
Christ.'*  He  preached  with  so  much  constancy 
of  mind,  strength  of  soul,  and  fervour  of  spirit, 
that  the  Sultan  had  him  in  great  favour,  and 
desired  him  to  stay  in  the  cotmtry.  Francis  said 
to  the  Sultan,  If  thou  doubt  of  leaving  the 
faith  of  Mahomet  for  that  of  Christ,  command 
that  a  fire  be  lit  so  that  thy  priests  and  I  may 
enter  it,  and  according  to  who  is  kept  safe  be- 


112       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

lieve  thou  in  that  faith/'  The  Sultan,  seeing 
one  of  his  priests  in  flight,  declared  that  they 
would  not  enter.  Francis  then  offered  to  go 
into  it  by  himself ;  if  he  was  saved  it  would  be 
proof  of  the  truth  of  the  religion  of  Christ,  and 
if  he  were  burned  it  would  be  for  his  sins.  But 
for  fear  of  the  people  the  Sultan  would  not 
consent,  and  so  Francis,  having  refused  all 
gifts,  returned  to  Christendom. 

The  Sultan  is  magnificent,  as  one  who  stands 
above  and  beyond  the  rival  creeds.  The  two 
Moslem  priests  have  strong  impressive  faces; 
they  are  moved  neither  by  the  spiritual  appeal 
nor  the  physical  terror. 

(m  12.)  St.  Francis  in  Communion  with 
God.  St.  Francis  is  raised  from  the  earth  and 
rests  on  a  cloud.  He  contemplates  God  face 
to  face  as  Moses  of  old.  His  arms  are  stretched 
out  widely  as  if  to  embrace  the  vision  which 
appears  in  the  sky  and  blesses  him.  A  group 
of  brethren  below  see  the  vision,  but  only  with 
a  sense  of  alarmed  curiosity. 

(n  13.)  The  Presepio  at  Greggio.  In  order 
to  move  the  people  to  devotion  and  bring  to 
mind  the  nativity  of  Christ,  Francis  ordered 
(after  license  from  the  Pope)  that  with  great 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis  113 


solemnity  they  should  bring  a  manger,  with  an 
ox  and  ass,  into  the  church.  Many  of  the  breth- 
ren and  good  women  were  there,  and  many 
lights  were  lit,  and  there  was  much  singing  of 
holy  songs.  The  man  of  God  stood  near  the 
manger,  full  of  tenderness,  weeping  tears  of 
devotion  and  piety,  and  mass  was  celebrated. 
Then  Francis  sang  the  gospel  and  preached  of 
the  Nativity,  and  it  was  affirmed  that  at  that 
point  a  sleeping  child  was  seen  in  his  arms. 
And  the  hay  which  was  in  the  manger  had 
much  virtue  in  curing  the  sick. 

(o  14.)  The  Miraculous  Spring  of  Water. 
When  Francis  was  going  to  spend  the  forty 
days  of  St.  Michael  on  the  Monte  della  Vernia, 
being  weakened  by  watching  and  by  strife  with 
devils,  he  borrowed  a  small  ass.  While  they 
were  on  the  way  the  countryman  to  whom  it 
belonged  was  thirsty.  Francis  dismotmted 
and,  kneeling  down,  prayed  and  bade  the 
coimtryman  to  go  to  a  certain  spot,  where  he 
fotmd  water  though  none  had  been  there 
before,  nor  has  it  been  seen  since.  So  the 
countryman  drank,  and  they  thanked  God 
for  the  miracle.  Vasari  singles  out  this  scene 
and  says  that  so  natural  is  the  man  who  drinks 


114      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

that  one  might  believe  him  to  be  a  living  per- 
son. 

Passing  by  the  great  western  doors  we  come 
to  the  following:  — 

(p  15.)  St.  Francis  preaching  to  the  Birds. 
It  is  told  that  on  the  way  to  Bevagna  he  saw 
many  birds,  and  he  bade  his  companions  wait 
while  he  went  and  preached  to  them.  My 
sister  birds/'  said  he,  you  should  be  much 
bound  to  God,  your  Creator,  and  you  should 
always,  in  every  place,  praise  Him,  for  He  has 
given  you  liberty  to  fly,  and  vestments  double 
and  triple,  and  has  preserved  your  seed  in  the 
ark  of  Noah,  and  also  He  keeps  you  in  the  air, 
which  He  has  made  for  you,  and  besides  this 
He  feeds  you  and  gives  you  the  fountains  and 
rivers  to  drink  from,  and  valleys  for  your 
refuge.  And  because  ye  do  not  know  how  to 
spin  and  sew,  God  clothes  you,  therefore  keep 
yourselves,  my  sisters,  from  the  sin  of  ingrati- 
tude.'' When  Francis  made  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  the  birds  rose  up  and  spread  themselves 
to  the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  to  signify 
that  the  preaching  of  the  cross  should  spread 
everywhere.  Francis  was  drawing  a  picture 
of  his  own  ideal  in  the  free  Hfe  of  the  birds, 


GIOTTO.  ST.  FRANCIS  PREACHING  TO  THE  BIRDS 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis  115 


devoid  of  care  and  devoted  to  the  praise  of 
God,  and  the  artist  seems  to  have  been  moved 
by  the  picture  of  nattiral  beauty  that  he  was 
set  to  paint. 

(q  16.)  The  Death  of  the  Lord  of  Celano. 
Francis  and  his  companions  having  been  re- 
ceived with  joyfulness,  the  lord  of  the  house 
was  called  to  one  side  and  bidden  to  confess 
and  give  thanks  to  God  for  all  His  mercies; 
so  giving  heed,  he  put  his  house  in  order,  and 
made  ready  to  receive  death.  Afterwards 
they  sat  down  to  meat,  and  while  eating  the 
lord  of  Celano  passed  from  this  life ;  and  thus 
it  was  shown  how  God  holds  dear  those  who 
receive  His  servants. 

(r  17.)  St.  Francis  preaches  before  Honorius 
HL  In  order  to  please  the  Cardinal  Ugolino, 
Francis  made  ready  a  sermon  very  diligently, 
but  when  he  began  to  preach  the  thing  went 
from  him,  and  confessing  what  had  happened, 
he  prayed  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  at  once  there 
was  given  to  him  understanding,  and  he  spoke 
with  so  much  power  that  the  Pope  and  cardi- 
nals were  moved.  It  is  also  said  that  so 
great  was  his  fervour  of  spirit  that  he 
moved  his  feet  as  one  who  dances  —  not  for 


ii6      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

amusement  but  as  overcome  by  divine 
joy. 

The  Pope  sits  in  a  fine  Gothic  church,  with 
detail  suitable  to  the  period.  He  is  not  the  old 
man  that  Honorius  really  was,  but  a  strong 
vigorous  personality  in  the  full  exercise  of 
powerful  capacities.  The  churchmen  listen 
with  an  air  of  puzzled  doubt ;  they  are  fearful 
of  what  may  come  of  this  new  doctrine. 

(s  i8.)  St.  Francis  appears  at  a  Chapter 
held  at  Aries.  At  the  provincial  chapters, 
though  Francis  could  not  be  there  in  body,  he 
was  ever  with  the  brethren  in  spirit,  and  even 
sometimes  in  presence.  At  Aries,  when  An- 
thony preached  of  the  cross,  it  was  given  to 
Brother  Monaldo  to  see  Francis  in  the  air  with 
his  arms  spread  out  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 

(t  19.)  St.  Francis  receives  the  Stigmata. 
Francis  had  the  habit  of  never  being  idle; 
like  the  angels  he  was  always  ascending  or 
descending,  ascending  in  contemplation  to 
God  or  descending  in  love  to  his  neighbour. 
He  divided  his  energies  between  the  active  and 
contemplative  life,  and  so  two  years  before  he 
died  he  went  to  keep  the  fast  of  St.  Michael  on 
the  Monte  della  Vernia, 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis  117 

On  the  day  of  the  exaltation  of  the  cross 
Francis  saw  a  seraph  with  six  shining  wings 
descend  from  heaven.  As  he  looked  at  it  he 
saw  between  the  wings  the  likeness  of  a  cruci- 
fied man.  Then  he  was  sealed  with  the  sign 
of  the  wounds.  Knowing  that  there  could  be 
no  affinity  between  the  immortality  of  the 
seraph  and  the  infirmity  of  the  passion,  he 
recognized  that  as  he  had  always  borne  Christ 
and  His  Passion  in  his  heart  and  also  in  his 
deeds,  so  he  must  be  transformed  into  Christ 
not  through  martyrdom  of  the  flesh  but  by  the 
ardour  of  his  soul  and  of  his  mind.  Thus 
when  the  vision  left  him  he  was  filled  with  the 
fervour  of  the  love  of  Christ,  and  on  his  body 
was  the  mark  of  the  wounds  of  Christ. 

(u  20.)  The  Death  of  St.  Francis.  Francis, 
knowing  of  the  day  of  his  death,  desired  to  be 
carried  down  to  Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli. 
Having  taken  off  his  clothes  he  lay  down  on 
the  grotmd,  and,  with  his  face  turned  to 
heaven,  he  said,  I  have  done  that  which  I 
had  to  do ;  may  our  Lord  Jesus  teach  you  so 
that  you  may  be  strong  in  His  love  and  serv- 
ice.'' He  thanked  God  that  as  Christ  had 
been  naked  on  the  Cross  so  he  at  his  end  was 


ii8       The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

poor  and  naked.  When  the  hour  of  his  death 
had  come  he  bade  his  brethren  that  they 
should  observe  patience  and  poverty  and  the 
faith  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church,  and,  above 
all  things,  the  Holy  Gospel.  He  blessed  them, 
saying,  To  God  I  commend  you  all,  that  you 
may  obey  and  fear  Him,  that  you  may  be 
strong  in  temptation,  and  constant  in  virtue, 
and  do  what  is  just  to  your  neighbours.'' 
When  they  had  read  from  the  Gospel  and  from 
the  Psalms,  that  most  holy  soul  left  the  body 
and  was  received  into  the  light  of  eternal  life. 

The  dead  man  is  surroimded  by  his  sorrow- 
ing brethren,  and  in  the  background  the  clergy 
are  collected  ready  to  perform  the  usual  rites. 
In  the  sky  there  is  the  soul  of  Francis  pictured 
as  a  youth  borne  to  heaven  in  an  aureole  of 
light,  and  supported  by  four  angels;  other 
angels  to  right  and  left  attend  them.  The 
picture  is  a  good  deal  damaged,  but  it  shows 
that  the  painter  had  overcome  many  of  the 
technical  difficulties  that  beset  the  artists  of 
the  early  fourteenth  century. 

(v  21.)  The  Vision  of  the  Bishop  of  Assisi 
and  of  Brother  Agostino.  The  bishop  having 
gone  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Monte  Gargano,  Fran- 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis  119 


cis  appeared  to  him  as  he  slept  at  Beneventum, 
and  said,  I  leave  the  world  and  go  to  heaven 
with  great  joy."  When  he  returned  to  Assisi 
the  bishop  knew  that  the  time  of  his  vision  was 
the  same  as  that  at  which  Francis  had  passed 
from  this  Hfe.  At  the  same  time  a  certain 
Brother  Agostino,  who  had  been  lying  waiting 
for  death,  and  without  power  of  speech,  sud- 
denly rose  up  crying,  Wait,  father,  wait. 
Behold,  I  come  with  thee." 

(w  22.)  The  Verification  of  the  Stigmata. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  fresco  are  pictures 
resting  on  a  beam  in  the  church  wherein  the 
scene  is  laid.  To  the  left,  Madonna  and  Child ; 
in  the  centre,  a  crucifix,  and  to  the  right,  an 

.angel.  Below  lies  the  body  of  St.  Francis,  the 
service  for  the  dead  is  being  read,  and  in  the 
backgrotmd  are  a  number  of  clergy  and  lay 
people,  for  many  came  to  see  and  be  assured 
of  the  miracle  of  the  stigmata.  Among  these 
was  a  noble  knight  full  of  doubt  even  like  the 

•  Apostle  Thomas.  And  when  he  had  seen  and 
moved  the  nails  with  his  hand,  and  also  the 
wound  in  the  side,  in  the  presence  of  many 
seculars  and  religious,  they  were  all  certain  of 
that  of  which  they  were  in  doubt. 


I20      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

(x  23.)  Sta.  Chiara  salutes  the  dead  Francis 
as  the  procession  passes  by  S.  Damiano. 

On  the  morning  after  Francis  died  a  great 
crowd  from  the  city  and  the  country  came, 
and  with  great  solemnity  of  canticles  and 
hymns,  and  the  divine  office  and  a  multitude 
of  torches  and  candles,  they  carried  the  body 
to  Assisi.  When  they  came  to  S.  Damiano, 
Chiara  and  her  holy  sisters  were  consoled  by 
seeing  and  kissing  the  holy  body  of  their  father 
Francis,  ornamented  with  the  holy  stigmata, 
and  clear  and  shining. 

(y  24.)  Canonization  of  St.  Francis.  Pope 
Gregory  IX.,  having  heard  of  the  many 
miracles  done  by  Francis  throughout  his  life 
and  after  his  death,  took  counsel  whether  to 
canonize  the  body  or  no.  He  sent  certain 
cardinals  to  search  out  the  miracles  whether 
they  were  true,  and  they  having  found  that 
these  things  were  so,  the  Pope  came  with  great 
solemnity  to  Assisi,  and  on  the  eighth  day 
before  the  Kalends  of  June,  1228,  the  most  holy 
body  of  the  saint  was  canonized.  This  fresco 
is  very  much  damaged. 

(z  25.)  The  Doubt  of  Pope  Gregory  is  re- 
solved.    Pope  Gregory  IX.    (the  Cardinal 


The  Life  of  St.  Francis  121 


Ugolino)  having  canonized  St.  Francis,  was 
still  in  doubt  about  the  stigmata.  Whence 
one  night  there  appeared  to  him  St.  Francis 
with  a  severe  cotmtenance  showing  anger,  and 
he  reproved  Gregory  for  the  hardness  of  his 
heart.  Lifting  up  his  arm  he  showed  the 
wound,  and  when  St.  Francis  had  gathered 
the  blood  from  it  in  a  phial  he  passed  out  of 
sight.  And  by  this  tlie  Pope  had  no  more 
doubt. 

(aa  26.)  A  certain  woman  greatly  devoted 
to  St.  Francis  died  with  some  sin  unconfessed. 
Suddenly,  when  her  kinsfolk  and  the  priest 
were  watching,  she  rose  up  and  told  them  that 
St.  Francis  had  obtained  grace  for  her,  that 
the  soul  might  return  to  the  body  until  she  had 
confessed.  So  it  was,  that  after  confession  her 
body  fell  dead,  as  before,  and  her  soul  was 
freed  from  great  punishment. 

(bb  27.)  A  certain  man,  Giovanni,  was 
wounded  so  sorely  that  the  doctor  could  do 
nothing  for  him,  and  when  there  was  no  more 
hope  St.  Francis  appeared  and  said,  Because 
of  thy  faith  in  the  Virgin  Mary  and  me,  God 
wills  that  thou  shouldst  be  freed  from  this 
evil/*   St.  Francis  touched  the  wotmds  with 


122      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

the  hands  which  bore  the  mark  of  the  stig- 
mata, and  they  were  healed. 

(cc  28.)  A  certain  Peter  having  been  con- 
demned for  heresy  was  given  to  the  keeping  of 
the  Bishop  of  Tivoli.  Peter  having  laid  down 
every  error  and  prayed  to  St.  Francis,  the 
latter  appeared  to  him  in  prison.  The  chains 
fell  from  the  prisoner's  limbs,  and  the  door  was 
opened.  When  the  bishop  told  the  cardinals 
and  the  Pope  what  had  happened,  they  praised 
God  and  the  blessed  St.  Francis,  and  let  the 
man  go. 


CHAPTER  VI 


S.  FRANCESCO  —  THE  LOWER  CHURCH  —  LIFE  OB 
CHRIST  —  THE  FOUR  ALLEGORICAL  FRESCOES 

PASSING  now  to  the  transepts  of  the  lower 
churchy  we  find  the  history  of  the  Hfe  of 
Christ.  These  paintings  may  be  regarded  as 
an  illustration  of  the  Creed. 

Dante  {Par,  vii.  79-120),  writing  perhaps  a 
few  years  later  than  the  time  when  these  fres- 
coes were  painted,  explains  how  the  Incarna- 
tion was  the  highest  manifestation  of  the 
justice  and  mercy  of  God.  Man  had  been  dis- 
franchised by  sin.  In  two  ways  it  was  possible 
that  his  lost  dignity  might  be  recovered.  God 
might  grant  a  free  pardon,  or  man  could  make 
satisfaction.  But,  in  the  first  case,  justice 
would  not  have  been  done,  for  goodness  would 
not  have  been  made  to  refill  that  which  sin  had 
emptied.  In  the  second,  it  was  impossible  for 
man  to  make  satisfaction,  inasmuch  as  he 

123 


124      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

could  never  fall  so  low  in  humility  as  he  had 
striven  to  rise  in  pride.  The  Incarnation 
answers  all  the  ends  of  justice,  for  goodness 
takes  the  place  of  evil.  It  also  is  the  highest 
evidence  of  mercy,  for  in  no  other  way  could 
God  so  fully  show  His  love  as  by  giving  Him- 
self, so  that  in  His  person  man  might  make 
satisfaction. 

It  was  the  loving  self-sacrifice,  the  poverty, 
the  renunciation,  the  suffering,  and  the  sub- 
mission to  the  divine  will  exhibited  in  this  life, 
that  St.  Francis  tried  to  make  the  rule  of  his 
own  life. 

PLAN  VI  (p.  126) 

No.  I  is  an  Annimciation. 

No.  2,  Salutation,  is  a  characteristic  piece 
of  early  fourteenth  century  Florentine  design. 
There  is  a  fine  sense  of  a  mountain  country  in 
the  background.  The  two  women  meet  with  a 
quiet  joy ;  each  knows  the  destiny  of  the  other, 
and  the  deference  of  the  older  woman  for  the 
yoimger  is  rendered  in  simple  and  yet  subtle 
fashion.  The  servants  carrying  the  little 
necessities  for  the  way  mark  the  growing  taste 


S.  Francesco 


for  expressing  thought  and  emotion  in  term 
of  common  Hfe. 

No  3  represents  the  Nativity.  Madonna 
looks  tenderly  at  the  swaddled  babe  in  her 
arms.  The  usual  Byzantine  design  puts  the 
babe  in  the  manger,  and  leaves  the  mother 
unconcerned.  The  ox  and  the  ass  have  an 
expression  of  lively  interest  in  the  child,  and 
overhead  two  choirs  of  six  angels  float  in 
adoration  and  prayer.  Rays  of  divine  power 
come  down  from  heaven  and  rest  on  the 
child.  Over  the  roof  of  the  shed  other  choirs 
of  angels  see  the  star,  and  one  of  them  flies 
down  and  announces  the  birth  to  the  shep- 
herds. In  the  foregrotind  the  Byzantine 
tradition  of  the  washing  of  the  babe  is  fol- 
lowed. Joseph  sits  at  the  extreme  left  resting 
his  head  on  his  hand.  There  is  a  note  of 
naturalism  throughout. 

No.  4  depicts  the  Presentation.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  famous  of  these  frescoes. 
The  temple  is  an  elaborate  Gothic  church 
decorated  with  mosaic  in  the  Cosmati  style. 
Every  figure  in  the  picture,  young  and  old, 
takes  its  part  in  expressing  the  mystery,  by 
which  the  thoughts  out  of  many  hearts  were 


126      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


Plan  VI.  —  Southern  Transept  of  the  Lower  Church  of  San 
Francesco,  Assisi 


S.  Francesco 


127 


to  be  revealed,  and  yet  no  picture  in  Italian 
art  is  more  remarkable  for  the  simple  render- 
ing of  maternal  affection. 

No.  5  shows  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi. 
The  mother  and  child  sit  in  an  open  loggia; 
they  are  attended  by  two  nimbed  figures. 
The  older  of  the  three  kings  kneels  and  re- 
ceives the  blessing  of  the  child,  the  other  two 
kings  look  on  at  some  distance ;  all  three  are 
nimbed.  Their  long  journey  is  suggested  by 
the  heads  of  two  camels  which  appear  at  one 
side  of  the  picture. 

No.  6,  the  Flight  into  Egypt,  is  a  striking 
desert  landscape.  Joseph  has  something  of 
the  air  and  bearing  of  an  ancient  Roman. 
An  angel  in  the  sky  shows  the  way. 

No.  7.  Slaughter  of  the  Innocents.  Herod, 
in  his  impassive  attitude,  is  the  strong  fea- 
ture of  this  picture.  The  action  is  extrava- 
gant and  the  intensity  of  suffering  is  poorly 
rendered. 

No.  8  shows  Christ  among  the  Doctors. 
This  is  an  impressive  design.  The  child 
seated  in  the  centre  in  calm  rule  draws  the 
attention  and  holds  it.  The  scene  is  in  a 
Gothic  church  with  side  chapels.  Joseph  and 


128      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Mary  enter  to  the  left,  and  hold  up  their 
hands  in  wonder  as  they  see  their  son  teach- 
ing with  authority  among  the  patriarchs  of 
the  nation. 

In  No.  9  Christ  goes  with  his  Parents. 
Jerusalem  is  painted  as  a  fourteenth  century 
city.  Mary  and  Joseph  pass  out  into  the 
coimtry.  Christ  has  become  the  child 
again;  he  looks  up  at  Joseph  with  con- 
fidence and  just  touches  the  sleeve  of  his 
robe. 

The  life  of  Christ  is  continued  in  the  Passion 
scenes  in  the  northern  transept.  The  frescoes 
are  usually  attributed  to  the  Sienese  school, 
and  the  name  of  Pietro  Lorenzetti  (died  1348) 
is  connected  with  them. 

PLAN  VII  (p.  132) 

No.  10  shows  the  Entry  into  Jerusalem. 
The  twelve  Apostles  headed  by  St.  Peter 
follow  Christ ;  they  are  met  by  the  crowd  at 
the  gate  of  the  city.  Boys  throw  olive 
branches  in  the  way. 

No.  II  is  the  Last  Supper.  The  meal  is 
eaten  at  a  circular  table,  and  Judas  cannot 


S.  Francesco 


129 


therefore  sit  on  the  outer  side.  He  is  dis- 
tinguished by  having  no  nimbus. 

No.  12.  The  Washing  of  the  Feet.  St. 
Peter  puts  his  hand  to  his  head,  saying, 

Lord,  not  my  feet  only,  but  also  my  hands 
and  my  head."  The  Apostles  are  not  so 
dignified  as  in  the  scene  of  the  entry  into 
Jerusalem. 

No.  13,  the  Betrayal,  has  not  a  noble 
figure  in  the  whole  composition.  The  sense 
of  degradation  could  hardly  be  more  com- 
plete than  that  conveyed  by  the  flight  of  the 
Apostles.  It  is  no  band  of  regular  soldiers, 
but  rather  a  mob  that  enters  the  garden. 
The  face  of  Judas  has  some  quality  in  it,  but 
that  of  Christ  is  not  only  unseemly,  it  is 
ignoble,  and  the  Apostle  who  stands  in  the 
lower  right-hand  corner  is  of  the  most  vulgar 
type. 

No.  14.  The  Flagellation.  This  scene  takes 
place  before  Pilate.  To  the  right  a  group  of 
Pharisees  look  on  with  a  satisfied  air.  The 
central  figure  is  miserably  inadequate.  There 
is  no  attempt  made  to  render  a  dignified  bear- 
ing under  degradation  and  suffering,  and  the 
expression  even  of  physical  pain  fails. 


130      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

No.  15.  Christ  is  led  to  Calvary.  Again 
the  central  figure  is  mean  and  cringing. 
Distortion  of  face  takes  the  place  of  a  digni- 
fied expression  of  emotion.  The  two  thieves 
walk  in  advance  of  Christ. 

No.  16.  An  immense  Crucifixion  occupies 
one  side  of  the  transept.  The  fresco  has  been 
damaged,  the  central  foreground  having  been 
cut  away.  The  scene  is  treated  historically 
and  not  symbolically.  The  figure  of  Christ 
on  the  cross  shows  an  advance  in  power  of 
rendering  the  human  frame  as  compared 
with  the  Crucifixions  in  the  transepts  of  the 
upper  church.  The  countenance  is  strong 
and  expressive.  The  two  thieves  are  also 
competently  rendered.  There  is  an  immense 
crowd  of  bystanders,  mainly  Roman  soldiers; 
they  add  nothing  either  to  the  character  or 
beauty  of  the  picture.  In  the  foreground, 
to  the  right,  the  group  of  women  support  the 
swooning  mother,  and  St.  John  looks  on  in 
helpless  misery.  The  scene  indeed  is  treated 
as  one  of  human  suffering;  even  the  angels 
who  fly  round  the  cross  express  bitter- 
ness and  tribulation  in  commonplace 
demonstrations  of  sorrow,  proper  to  trivial 


S.  Francesco 


Plan  VII.  —  Northern  Transept  of  the  Lower  Church  of 


San  Francesco,  Assisi 

rather  than  to  deep  and  significant  emo- 
tion. 

The  new  attitude  towards  life  presents  its 


132      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

weaker  side  to  us.  Christ  ceased  to  be  a  more 
or  less  abstract  representation  of  the  divine 
majesty.  He  was  realized  as  the  Man  of 
Sorrows.  At  the  same  time  the  teaching  of 
St.  Bernard  and  St.  Francis  had  quickened 
the  emotions  of  men ;  the  love  of  God  became 
an  active  principle  working  on  the  feelings 
rather  than  on  the  intelligence  of  mankind. 
Hence  we  find  a  tendency  to  exaggerate  the 
emotional  aspect  of  the  mysteries  of  man's 
being  at  the  expense  of  the  wider  and  deeper 
significance  of  things. 

No.  17.  The  Deposition  from  the  Cross. 
A  study  of  human  emotion  which  conveys  no 
effective  sense  of  the  scene.  The  purely 
physical  phenomenon  has  blinded  the  eyes 
of  the  onlookers  to  the  tmderlying  fact  that 
death  is  about  to  be  swallowed  up  in  victory. 
The  action  of  the  one  who  draws  out  the  nail 
from  the  feet  is  trivial. 

No.  18  shows  the  Entombment.  The  same 
seven  persons  who  appear  in  the  Deposition 
take  part  in  the  Entombment. 

No.  19,  the  Descent  into  Hades,  is  much 
damaged. 

No.  20.  The   Resurrection.     Once  more 


S.  Francesco 


133 


the  central  figure  is  the  least  satisfactory. 
Christ  rises  out  of  the  tomb  bearing  the  cross 
of  victory,  five  angels  on  each  side  greet 
Him.  Around  the  tomb  lie  the  soldiers  on 
guard;  they  are  fine  figures,  and  their  sleep 
is  rendered  naturally. 

Pictures  in  the  Transepts  not  belonging  to 
the  Series  of  the  Life  of  Christ 

PLAN  VI  (p.  126) 

No.  21.  In  the  southern  transept.  This 
picture  of  the  Crucifixion  is  symbolical ;  it  is 
not  intended  to  represent  the  event  as  it 
happened.  There  are  no  thieves,  and  on  the 
right  side  of  the  cross  Sto  Francis  kneels  with 
two  of  his  brethren.  St.  Mary  Magdalene 
embraces  the  feet  of  Christ.  To  the  left  Mary 
falls  in  a  swoon.  There  is  a  notable  group  of 
Jews  to  the  right  of  the  picture.  A  small 
medallion  in  the  frame  at  the  top  has  a  figure 
of  the  pelican,  in  reference  to  Ps.  cii.  6.  One 
of  the  popular  stories  about  this  bird  was, 
that  the  yoimg  strike  their  father  and  he  kills 
them;  then  the  mother  pierces  her  breast, 
and  the  blood  which  flows  from  it  brings  the 


134      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

young  birds  to  life  again.  If  this  be  true/' 
says  Augustine,  "  see  how  it  agreeth  with 
Him  who  gave  us  life  by  His  blood/'  At  the 
bottom  of  the  picture  is  a  similar  little  paint- 
ing of  the  lion  licking  its  cubs,  in  reference  to 
the  story  that  the  cubs  were  born  dead,  and 
were  brought  to  life  after  three  days  by  the 
father  hcking  them.  In  this,  was  seen  a  type 
of  the  Resurrection  after  the  three  days  in 
the  tomb. 

No.  2  2,  Madonna  and  Child  with  Angels 
and  St.  Francis,  is  a  famous  picture  and  has 
traditionally  been  assigned  to  Cimabue. 

It  represents  the  transition  from  Byzantine 
to  Florentine  ideals.  The  celestial  powers 
reveal  to  man  the  Divine  Child.  The  grand 
sweep  of  the  angels'  wings,  the  graceful  in- 
clination of  their  forms  and  the  reverent 
graciousness  of  their  expression  strike  the 
active  note  in  the  picture.  Madonna  is  pas- 
sive ;  she  has  lost  the  abstract  quality  of  the 
mother  of  God,  and  has  not  gained  the  natural 
quality  of  the  mother  of  a  human  child.  The 
heavily  coiled  hair  of  the  angels,  the  veil  and 
robe  of  the  Madonna,  and  many  other  details, 
show  the  effect  of  the  Byzantine  tradition. 


S.  Francesco 


135 


The  ordered  magnificence  of  the  throne,  the 
rich  hangings,  and  the  splendour  of  the 
celestial  spirits  are  in  strange  contrast  to  St. 
Francis,  the  humble  follower  of  holy  poverty, 
who  stands  at  the  right  of  the  picture.  The 
insignificant  figure  of  the  little  poor  man 
of  Assisi,"  standing  apart  as  it  does  from  the 
general  design,  does  not  at  first  suggest  the 
doctors  and  saints  of  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
century  altar-pieces,  and  yet  it  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  early  example  of  such  schemes. 
This  picture  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  in 
the  whole  range  of  Italian  art.  To  the 
student  of  style  it  marks  with  peculiar 
delicacy  the  change  of  manner;  to  those 
who  study  the  mind  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury it  is  full  of  suggestion;  to  all  it 
remains  one  of  the  most  lovely  creations  of 
human  genius. 

No,  23  is  a  series  of  eight  half-lengths.  To 
the  right  are  Madonna  and  Child,  with  a  king 
on  the  one  side  and  a  queen  on  the  other  — 
probably  St.  Louis  and  St.  Catherine  of  Alex- 
andria. To  the  extreme  left  is  St.  Francis, 
and  between  these  the  frescoes  probably  rep- 
resent St.  John  the  Evangelist,  Sta.  Chiara, 


136      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  and  St.  Louis  the 
Archbishop.  St.  Louis  the  King  was  the 
patron  of  the  Brothers,  and  St.  Elizabeth  of 
Hungary  was  the  patroness  of  the  Sisters  of 
the  Third  Order.  The  work  has  been  attrib- 
uted to  Simone  Martini  of  Siena  (1285?- 
1344).  A  comparison  with  the  details  of  the 
Chapel  of  St.  Martin  will .  show  that  both 
series  may  well  be  the  work  of  one  man. 
These  half-lengths  are  charming  and  pecul- 
iarly characteristic  works  of  the  Sienese 
school  at  its  best,  and  as  they  are  close  to  the 
scenes  of  the  Nativity  and  Presenta- 
tion,'* and  other  Florentine  works  of  the  same 
period  and  of  equally  fine  quality,  there  is  an 
opportunity  for  the  traveller  to  compare  the 
two  great  branches  of  Tuscan  art  at  its  most 
interesting  period. 

Nos.  24  and  25  probably  refer  to  the  story 
of  a  miracle  worked  in  the  city  of  Suessa.  A 
house  fell  and  killed  a  boy.  The  people  raised 
the  body  from  among  the  ruins,  and  the 
mother,  who  had  faith  in  St.  Francis,  began 
to  cry,  St.  Francis,  I  pray  thee  give  me 
back  my  son  aHve,  and  I  will  cover  thy  altar 
with  new  cloth.''    And  thus  they  remained 


S.  Francesco 


137 


till  midnight,  when  the  boy  arose  and  began 
to  praise  God  and  St.  Francis." 

No.  24  shows  how  the  people  recovered  the 
body  from  the  ruins  of  the  fallen  house.  The 
figure  of  a  man  standing  with  his  finger 
touching  his  chin  is  supposed  to  be  a  portrait 
of  Giotto. 

In  No.  25  the  clergy  and  people  have 
gathered  for  the  funeral.  In  an  open  loggia, 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  picture,  St.  Francis 
descends  from  the  sky,  and,  taking  the  boy 
by  the  hand,  brings  him  to  life. 

No.  26  shows  St.  Francis  and  a  skeleton. 
This  life  and  its  accidents  were  to  the  mind 
of  St.  Francis  of  little  importance.  Death 
comes  to  all  men  alike  —  to  the  king,  whose 
crowned  skeleton  mocks  his  earthly  great- 
ness, and  to  the  common  m.an.  It  becomes, 
therefore,  a  symbol  of  the  equaHty  of  all  men 
in  the  sight  of  God.  We  are  in  presence  of 
the  two  obligations  of  humanity.  St.  Francis 
stands  for  that  which  ought  to  be  the  common 
lot,  the  life  of  holy  poverty,  the  ideal  of  the 
perfection  of  Christ.  Death  comes  as  the 
common  lot  by  which  all  may  pass  from  the 
shadows  of  this  life  to  the  realities  of  the  next. 


138      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

No.  27.  Resurrection  of  a  Child.  A  mother 
desiring  to  go  to  church  left  a  child,  seven 
years  of  age,  shut  up  in  her  house.  It  fell 
from  a  window  and  died.  The  mother  on  her 
return  began  to  weep,  so  that  a  crowd  was 
gathered.  A  certain  Brother  Rano  asking 
the  father  of  the  child  whether  he  believed 
in  St.  Francis,  the  father  answered.  Yes; 
and  if  he  (St.  Francis)  would  do  him  the 
grace  to  revive  the  child  he  would  ever  be  his 
devout  servant.  Then  the  whole  company 
began  to  pray,  and  the  child  rose  to  life. 

No.  28.  Over  the  door  from  the  south  tran- 
sept into  the  monastery  there  is  a  fresco  of 
Christ.  To  correspond  with  it  there  is  a  simi- 
lar fresco  of  St.  Francis  (No.  30)  over  the 
door  from  the  northern  transept. 

PLAN  VII  (p.  132) 

In  No.  29  St.  Francis  receives  the  stig- 
mata. This  fresco  has  been  attributed  to 
Giotto.  Its  position  opposite  the  great  Cru- 
cifixion (No.  16)  suggests  the  parallel  which 
has  been  frequently  noted.  Monte  della 
Vernia  in  the  Casentino  having  been  given 


S.  Francesco 


139 


to  the  brethren  for  a  place  of  prayer,  Francis, 
with  the  brothers  Masseo,  Angelo,  and  Leo, 
went  from  Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli  to  spend 
the  feast  of  St.  Michael  there  in  the  year  1224. 
On  the  mountain  they  dwelt  imder  a  beech- 
tree,  and  one  day  when  Francis  marvelled 
how  the  rocks  were  fissured,  it  was  shown  to 
him  that  they  had  been  miraculously  rent 
asunder  at  the  time  of  Christ's  Passion.  He 
therefore  perceived  that  it  was  here  that  the 
Passion  was  to  be  renewed,  in  his  soul  by  love 
and  compassion,  and  in  his  body  by  the 
marks  of  the  holy  stigmata.  After  this  he 
was  often  visited  by  angels,  and  enjoyed 
much  of  the  sweetness  of  holy  contemplation ; 
his  body  was  sometimes  raised  from  the 
ground  and  was  surrotmded  by  such  splen- 
dour that  his  brethren  could  hardly  see  him. 

On  the  feast  of  the  Assumption  he  went 
by  himself  into  a  more  solitary  place,  where 
Brother  Leo  was  to  bring  bread  and  water 
and  say  matins  with  him.  In  this  place  he 
was  sorely  vexed  by  the  devil,  who  fought 
much  with  him,  but  he  was  comforted  by 
angels,  and  every  morning  a  falcon  awoke 
him  in  time  for  matins.    Once  when  he  was 


I40      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

contemplating '  the  unmeasurable  glory  and 
joy  of  the  blessed  in  the  life  everlasting,  an 
angel  appeared  to  him,  and  made  such  ravish- 
ing music  that  all  bodily  understanding 
ceased. 

At  another  time  Brother  Leo  followed 
Francis,  and  saw  a  light  descend  on  his  head. 
Francis  told  Leo  how  God  had  spoken  to  him. 
and  asked  for  three  gifts.  Then  he  found 
three  balls  of  gold  in  his  breast,  and  offering 
these  to  God,  it  was  shown  to  him  that  they 
signified  holy  obedience,  the  most  lofty 
poverty,  and  the  most  noble  chastity.  By 
the  opening  of  the  Gospel  in  the  name  of  the 
Most  Holy  Trinity  three  times  in  succession 
at  the  Passion  of  Christ,  it  was  further  shown 
to  Francis  that  as  he  had  followed  Christ  in 
the  acts  of  his  life,  so  he  should  conform 
himself  in  the  affliction  and  anguish  of  the 
Passion. 

On  the  morning  of  the  day  of  the  Most 
Holy  Cross  Francis,  turning  himself  to  the 
east,  prayed  that  he  might  feel  in  his  body 
the  pain  of  the  Passion,  and  in  his  heart  the 
love  which  moved  Christ  to  bear  so  much  for 
sinners.    Then  the  fervour  of  devotion  grew 


S.  Francesco 


141 


in  him  so  much  that  he  was  transformed  into 
Jesus  through  love  and  compassion.  He  saw 
a  seraph  come  from  heaven  in  swift  flight, 
with  six  shining  wings,  and  he  drew  so  near 
that  Francis  saw  the  Hkeness  of  a  crucified 
man.  And  it  was  shown  to  him  that  not  by- 
martyrdom  of  the  body,  but  by  kindHng  of 
the  spirit  must  he  be  transformed  into  the 
express  likeness  of  Christ  crucified.  Then 
Monte  della  Vernia  appeared  as  though  burn- 
ing with  flame,  and  the  valleys  and  motin tains 
roimd  about  were  lighted  up  so  that  the  shep- 
herds seeing  it  had  great  fear. 

No.  30  is  a  picture  of  St.  Francis  over  the 
door  leading  into  the  monastery,  similar  to 
the  picture  of  Christ  (No.  28)  over  the 
corresponding  door  in  the  southern  tran- 
sept. 

No.  30  a.  In  the  corresponding  place  to  the 
picture  of  St.  Francis  and  the  skeleton  in  the 
southern  transept,  there  is  in  the  northern 
transept  a  picture  of  the  Death  of  Judas. 
The  contrast  is  suggested  between  the  comiing 
of  death  to  those  who  with  Francis  follow 
Christ,  and  to  those  who  like  Judas  crucify 
Him. 


142      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

No.  31.  Madonna  and  Child  with  St.  John 
the  EvangeHst  and  St.  Francis.  This  picture 
is  usually  attributed  to  Pietro  Lorenzetti ; 
it  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  church. 
It  is  purely  a  realization  of  emotion;  there 
is  hardly  a  trace  of  action  either  intellectual 
or  physical  beyond  the  gesture  with  which 
Madonna  points  the  child  to  St.  Francis. 
The  emotion  is  of  the  simplest  kind;  the 
child  looks  up  at  his  mother  with  a  certainty 
of  sympathy,  the  mother  regards  the  child 
wistfully,  her  love  is  over-shadowed  by  a 
sense  of  the  evil  days  to  come.  St.  John  the 
EvangeHst  enjoys  a  classical  serenity  just 
tempered  by  the  naturalism  of  the  time;  it 
is  a  fine  ideal  of  the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved.  St.  Francis  is  not  characterized  as  the 
joyful  and  simple  soul  that  loved  to  beg  for 
daily  bread,  and  dreaded  the  possession  even 
of  learning  —  there  is  something  of  the  stu- 
dent in  the  face,  which  suggests  the  Domini- 
can rather  than  the  Franciscan  habit  of 
mind.  It  is  not  only  the  emotion  which  is  of 
the  simplest  kind,  the  artistic  means  chosen 
to  express  it  are  equally  imaffected.  All 
that  can  be  gained  by  severity  and  refine- 


S.  Francesco  143 


ment  of  drawing  and  colour  we  enjoy  in  this 
picture. 

We  now  come  to  the  four  great  allegorical 
frescoes  in  the  vaults  over  the  high  altar. 
(They  can  be  seen  best  in  the  afternoon  Hght.) 

The  Ideal  of  St.  Francis 

The  frescoes  over  the  high  altar  in  the  lower 
church,  representing  Poverty,  Chastity,  and 
Obedience,  express  the  ideal  of  St.  Francis. 
The  fourth  fresco  of  the  glorification  of  the 
saint,  represents  the  divine  recognition  of 
this  ideal. 

The  imitation  of  tke  life  of  Christ,  which 
was  the  aim  of  St.  Francis,  does  not  differ 
from  the  nominal  aim  of  all  Christians  before 
his  time  and  since.  The  distinction  lies  in 
the  method  of  reaching  it,  and  in  the  single- 
minded  devotion  with  which  the  method  was 
followed. 

St.  Francis  saw  in  the  sojourn  of  Christ  on 
earth  an  ideal  which  he  described  as  holy 
poverty.  It  is  in  the  exercise  of  this,  and  not 
in  formal  faith  and  ceremonial  observance, 
that  the  true  relations  of  life  become  clear. 


144      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

When  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  covet,  when 
life  ceases  to  be  a  struggle  for  material  pros- 
perity, and  when  preeminence  means  the 
most  absolute  humility,  it  becomes  natural 
that  love  should  grow  between  man  and  man. 

The  ideal  of  holy  poverty  implies  more 
than  a  scheme  of  living  without  ownership 
of  property.  It  is  an  ideal  in  which  a  man 
gives  up  not  only  lands  and  houses,  he  must 
also  make  the  sacrifice  of  all  material  desires. 
More  than  that,  he  must  give  up  the  exercise 
of  his  intellect  and  his  will,  in  the  sense  that 
they  ought  to  be  used  only  in  submission  to 
the  will  of  another. 

Spiritual  freedom  is  gained  when  that 
which  we  have  is  prepared  by  Divine  Provi- 
dence, as  is  manifest  in  the  bread  received  in 
alms,'*  when  we  have  divested  the  mind  of 
all  material  desires  by  the  exercise  of  holy 
chastity,  and  when  we  have  submitted  the 
intellect  and  the  will  to  the  guidance  of  an- 
other in  holy  obedience. 

When  body  and  soul  alike  have  been  emp- 
tied of  self,  then  may  be  reached  that  state 
of  contemplation  which  is  the  mediaeval  ideal 
of  beatitude.   In  this  condition  man  can  per- 


S.  Francesco 


145 


ceive  something  of  the  truth  regarding  the 
divine  attributes,  and  from  this  there  pro- 
ceeds the  love  of  God.  He  can  also  perceive 
the  divine  order  in  creation,  so  that  all 
nature  is  included  in  the  love  of  one  who  has 
reached  the  power  of  contemplation  through 
the  exercise  of  holy  poverty. 

PLAN  VIII  (p.  149) 

No.  32  represents  the  Mystical  Marriage  of 
St.  Francis  with  the  Holy  Lady  Poverty,  she 
who  when  Mary  stayed  below,  mounted 
the  cross  with  Christ (Wicksteed's  trans- 
lation. Par,  xi.  71-72).  The  scene  is  laid  on 
a  bare  rock.  Christ  stands  between  the  pair 
holding  the  arm  of  Poverty,  while  St.  Francis 
puts  a  ring  on  her  finger;  to  the  left  of 
Poverty  stand  Hope  and  Charity. 

On  a  ledge  of  the  rock  below  are  two  under- 
sized figures;  the  one  casts  a  stone  at  Pov- 
erty, the  other  points  with  a  stick,  and  a  dog 
barks  —  for  to  her,  as  to  Death,  no  one  opens 
the  gate  willingly  (Par.  xi.  59-60). 

At  the  lower  corners  of  the  picture  are 
groups  showing  how  men  make  right  and 


146      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

wrong  judgments  as  to  what  is  the  real  good. 
To  the  spectator's  left  a  youth,  moved  by 
charity,  gives  his  robe  to  a  beggar.  To  the 
right  there  is  a  group  of  three  men ;  one  has 
nothing  to  indicate  his  tendency,  the  others 
have  chosen  the  gathering  of  wealth  and  the 
pleasure  of  the  senses  as  their  aim.  On  each 
side  of  the  central  figures  are  groups  of  angels, 
and  in  the  apex  the  Father  Eternal  looks 
down  on  the  scene. 

Mr.  Ruskin  says  that  the  thorns  which  are 
gathered  rotmd  the  feet  of  Lady  Poverty  are 
those  of  the  acacia,  from  which  the  crown 
of  thorns  was  made.  The  roses  and  the  lilies 
which  spring  up  behind  her  are  symbols  of 
love  and  purity.  Charity  has  a  garland  of 
flowers,  and  the  warmth  of  her  love  is  figured 
by  the  flames  which  encircle  her  head.  She 
has  a  circular  nimbus,  like  Christ,  the  angels, 
and  St.  Francis,  while  Poverty  and  Hope 
have  each  a  hexagonal  nimbus.  The  circle 
was  considered  a  more  perfect  form  than  the 
square  or  the  hexagonal.  The  square  nimbus 
was  usually  reserved  for  living  persons  —  the 
hexagonal  for  the  virtues,  while  the  circular 
nimbus  was  the  figure  of  the  eternal  and  ever- 


S.  Francesco 


147 


lasting  condition.  Charity  has  the  circular 
form,  as  it  is  the  universal  passion,  neither 
Creator  nor  creature  was  ever  without  it 
{Purg.  xvii.  91),  and  the  principle  of  love 
**  tends  to  God  as  the  principle  of  happiness 
(Gardner,  Ten  Heavens,  p.  183). 

Two  angels  rise  up  towards  heaven ;  the  one 
bears  a  church  with  a  walled  garden.  This 
fair  building,  with  its  garden  full  of  fresh 
green  and  beautiful  foliage,  is  a  figure  of  the 
new  vigour  and  force  in  the  Church,  springing 
from  the  freedom  of  spirit  gained  by  putting 
away  the  hindrances  which  choke  the  true 
life  of  the  soul.  The  other  angel  offers  up  a 
purse  and  a  garment,  probably  to  signify 
that  the  things  which  have  been  received 
from  the  goodness  of  God  should  be  offered 
in  His  service. 

The  scene  in  which  the  young  Francis  re- 
nounced his  family  and  his  heritage,  and  gave 
up  even  the  clothes  he  wore,  here  receives  its 
mystical  interpretation.  When  the  brethren 
asked  him  what  virtue  made  a  man  most  the 
friend  of  Christ,  he  answered:  Know, 
brothers,  that  poverty  is  the  special  way  for 
salvation,  because  she  is  humility  and  the 


148      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

root  of  perfection.  .  .  .  And  if  any  man 
wishes  to  ascend  to  the  height  of  perfection 
he  must  renounce  worldly  wisdom  and  knowl- 
edge of  letters,  that  is  to  say,  if  he  is  to  get 
gain  of  it.  For  if  he  is  freed  from  all  such 
worldly  powers  and  possessions  he  may  enter 
into  the  power  of  God,  and  offer  himself 
naked  to  the  arms  of  Christ.  It  cannot  be 
said  that  a  man  has  renounced  all,  if  he  has 
reserved  something  of  his  own  prudence  or 
tmderstanding." 

No.  33.  Holy  Chastity  is  personified  by  a 
young  woman  who  is  seen  in  prayer  in  the 
tower  of  a  strong  castle.  The  building  is  on 
a  bare  rock,  and  is  surrounded  by  walls  and 
towers  in  the  usual  fashion. 

Two  angels  float  roimd  about  the  tower, 
and  offer  a  palm  and  a  crown  to  Chastity. 

The  central  scene  outside  the  castle  walls 
is  the  purification  by  baptism  of  a  yoiing 
man ;  an  angel  lays  a  hand  on  his  head,  and 
another  pours  water  over  it.  To  the  right 
two  angels  hold  clothing  ready  for  him,  prob- 
ably the  habit  of  the  order.  Purity  and 
Fortitude  lean  over  the  castle  wall,  the  one 
with  a  banner  and  the  other  with  a  shield,  so 


S.  Francesco  149 

that  the  newly  baptized  one  may  be  made 
ready  to  join  the  soldiery  of  the  heavenly 
kingdom.    The  outward  purification  of  the 


Plan  VIII  —  Nave  of  the  Lower  Church  of  San  Francesco, 

Assisi 


body  by  water  is  the  symbol  of  that  inward 
purification  of  the  soul  which  springs  from 
the  renunciation  implied  in  the  Franciscan 
ideal  of  poverty.  When  pride  of  intellect, 
self-assertion,  ambition,  avarice,  and  love  of 


150     The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

luxury  have  been  driven  out  by  the  love  of 
holy  poverty  then  is  there  true  purification 
alike  of  body  and  soul. 

Returning  to  the  picture,  three  figures  on 
the  left  eagerly  climb  the  rocky  slope,  and 
stretch  upwards  towards  St.  Francis;  he 
takes  the  hand  of  one  of  them,  who  is  a  monk. 
An  angel  holds  out  a  cross,  and  a  nun  reaches 
towards  it  to  clasp  it  in  her  hand.  The  monk 
and  ntm  have  been  called  Bernard  of  Quinte- 
valle  and  Sta.  Chiara ;  the  layman  is  supposed 
to  represent  the  third  order.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  fresco  there  is  a  contest  with  the 
vices.  Amor  and  two  other  personifica- 
tions of  disorder  are  being  forced  over  the 
edge  of  the  rock.  A  cowled  and  winged 
figure  of  Penitence  lays  her  lash  on  the  back 
of  Amor,''  and  an  angel  thrusts  at  him  with 
a  spear.  Another  angel  with  cross  and  shield 
stands  in  an  attitude  of  defence.  Death  as  a 
skeleton  forces  an  evil  spirit  down  into  the 
abyss. 

Another  important  element  of  the  picture 
is  the  placing  of  guardians  on  each  of  the 
three  sides  of  the  castle.  They  have  circular 
nimbuses  and  wings.  Those  that  can  be  fully 


S.  Francesco 


seen  in  the  front  have  shields,  and  two  of 
them  bear  scourges  —  they  are  the  ministers 
of  Penitence  and  defenders  of  the  castle  of 
Chastity.  They  are  also  doubtless  ministers 
of  God,  the  swords  and  shields  suggesting 
that  they  belong  to  the  order  of  the  princi- 
palities. 

A  certain  brother  on  one  occasion  said  to 
Brother  Egidio,  You  who  so  commend  the 
virtue  of   chastity,  tell  me  what  it  is.'' 

Brother,''  answered  Egidio,  I  tell  thee, 
that  properly,  chastity  is  the  anxious  cus- 
todian and  continual  guardian  of  the  corporal 
and  spiritual  senses,  preserving  them  pure 
and  immaculate  for  God  alone." 

Holy  Obedience  is  the  subject  of  the  fresco 
No.  34.  The  sanction  for  this  quality  is 
found  in  the  crucified  Christ,  partially  visible 
behind  the  figure  of  Obedience.  Man  is  sub- 
ject to  various  temptations  on  his  way 
towards  the  true  goal  of  life.  The  pleasure 
in  riches  and  other  material  well-being,  and 
the  pleasure  in  the  beauty  and  capacity  of 
the  body,  may  both  be  subdued  and  yet  man 
is  not  free  from  danger. 

Unless  the  will  is  brought  into  subjection, 


152      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

there  can  be  no  right  rule  of  life,  for  it  is  by 
the  will  (that  is,  by  the  tinion  of  desire  and 
reason)  that  the  use  of  our  capacities  is  regu- 
lated. Hence,  if  they  are  to  be  turned  to  the 
best  purpose,  man  must  be  stript  of  his  self- 
will  so  that  temptation  may  be  put  away 
from  him. 

This  submission  of  the  will  is  represented 
by  Holy  Obedience,  who  sits  in  the  centre  of 
the  picture,  laying  her  hand  upon  the  yoke, 
which  a  monk  who  kneels  before  her  holds  in 
his  hands.  She  lays  a  finger  on  her  mouth  to 
forbid  speech,  for  in  silence  we  may  best  study 
that  which  is  in  the  heart.  To  the  left  sits 
Prudence  with  two  faces,  one  old,  the  other 
young,  a  figure  of  the  memory  of  things  past, 
and  an  tinderstanding  of  things  present,  from 
which  springs  a  foresight  of  that  which  is  to 
come.  Prudence  is  the  quality  which  leads 
a  man  to  a  right  estimate  of  the  best 
interests  of  life.'' 

In  order  that  this  power  of  estimating  may 
be  gained,  there  must  be  experience  and  a 
broad  outlook  over  life  regarded  as  a  whole. 
Hence  Prudence  holds  a  looking-glass,  in 
which  the  kneeling  monk,  when  he  turns  his 


S.  Francesco  153 

head,  may  see  reflected  therein  the  past  and 
present,  as  it  were,  so  that  he  may  guide 
himself  aright  in  the  futiire. 

The  compasses  she  holds  symbolize  the 
measure  in  all  things  by  which  a  man  exer- 
cises moderation  and  attains  to  calmness  of 
soul. 

Besides  the  looking-glass  and  the  com- 
passes, Prudence  has  an  astronomical  instru- 
ment, explaining  the  method  of  the  ruling  of 
the  heavens,  used  here  as  a  symbol  of  the 
ruling  which  Prudence  exercises  in  the  life  of 
man. 

Opposite  to  Prudence,  and  to  the  right  of 
Obedience,  is  seated  Humility.  This  is  the 
quality  which  most  easily  opens  the  mind  to 
the  influence  of  celestial  as  opposed  to  ter- 
restrial things.  It  is  the  most  efficient  means 
of  putting  aside  all  that  which  hinders  the 
spiritual  life.  In  the  exercise  of  it,  man  makes 
free  progress  towards  the  divine.  Humility 
is  a  state  implying  an  absence  of  all  presump- 
tion, and  in  this  simplicity,  virtue  gives  a 
clear  and  bright  light,  which  is  symbolized 
by  the  candle  she  has  in  her  hand. 

He  who  by  prudence  forms  a  true  concep- 


154      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

tion  of  the  right  aim  in  Ufe,  and  who  through 
humility  is  saved  from  the  temptations 
which  beset  the  soul,  is  fitted  to  submit  his 
will  to  the  yoke  of  subjection.  If  he  is  moved 
to  bear  the  yoke  by  the  spirit  of  charity  then 
he  will  rise  to  heaven  by  holy  obedience  — 
this  is  signified  by  the  wings  which  she  bears. 

Below  the  figure  of  Prudence  two  novices 
are  led  towards  Holy  Obedience  by  an  angel. 
On  the  other  side,  below  Humility,  is  a  cen- 
taur; he  has  the  body  of  a  man,  the  fore- 
feet of  a  horse,  and  the  hind  feet  of  a  beast 
of  prey.  This  creature  of  mixed  nature  is 
significant  of  the  man  in  whom  reason  no 
longer  holds  sway  over  the  lower  nature. 
An  angel  points  to  Holy  Obedience  as  a 
means  of  reconciliation,  only  to  produce  dis- 
gust and  aversion  in  a  being  so  disordered 
and  misruled. 

Obedience,  Prudence,  and  Humility  sit  in 
an  open  loggia;  at  each  side  there  is  a  com- 
pany of  kneeling  angels,  and  above  we  see 
St.  Francis  attended  by  two  kneeling  angels. 
He  is  drawn  up  to  heaven  by  cords;  he  has 
in  his  left  hand  a  cross,  and  the  marks  of  the 
stigmata  are  shown. 


S.  Francesco 


155 


No.  35.  The  Glory  of  St.  Francis.  A  cer- 
tain brother,  when  travelling  with  St.  Francis, 
had  a  vision  of  a  throne  set  in  heaven,  and  he 
heard  a  voice  saying, This  seat  was  Lucifer's 
who  fell  through  pride,  and  now  it  is  kept  for 
the  humble  Francis.''  The  saint  sits  with  a 
cross  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  his  left,  a  book. 
Over  his  head  is  a  banner  with  a  cross,  and 
an  angel  of  the  order  of  seraphim,  who  see 
more  of  the  First  Cause  than  any  other  angelic 
nature." 

Round  about  the  throne  of  St.  Francis  is 
a  company  of  angels  dancing,  singing,  and 
making  music.  Like  the  spirits  that  Dante 
sees  in  the  heaven  of  the  sim,  they  seem  as 
ladies  not  from  the  dance  released,  but  paus- 
ing, silent,  listening,  till  they  catch  the  notes 
renewed  "  (Wicksteed's  translation,  Par.  x. 
79-81).  Then  again,  ''the  glorious  wheel' ' 
revolves,  and  renders  *' voice  to  voice  in 
harmony  and  sweetness  that  may  not  be 
known  except  where  joy  maketh  itself  eter- 
nal "  (Wicksteed's  translation,  Par.  x.  145- 
148). 

Life  in  its  most  complete  form  exists  in 
God,  who,  while  He  is  Himself  unmoved,  is 


156      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

the  source  from  whence  all  motion  proceeds. 
Motion  is  therefore  an  expression  of  the  life 
which  man  receives  from  God,  and  since  this 
life  partakes  of  the  nature  of  God,  it  finds 
its  most  complete  development  in  the  desire 
of  the  individual  to  return  to  its  source.  This 
desire  is  an  expression  of  love,  and  as  its 
object  is  to  return  to  God,  it  is  the  love  of 
God. 

Hence  the  revolving  of  the  heavens  of  the 
angels  rotmd  the  point  from  which  springs 
life  (Par.  xxviii.  16),  the  circling  of  the  souls 
which  Dante  sees,  and  the  dancing  of  the 
angels  rotind  the  throne  of  St.  Francis  is 
nothing  else  than  an  expression  of  the  bond 
which  tmites  all  created  things  in  their  love 
of  the  Creator.  It  is  in  this  circuit  of  motion 
of  life,  and  of  love,  that  the  soul  gains  strength 
to  perceive  the  final  vision  of  the  Eternal 
Light  who  only  in  Itself  abides,  only  Itself 
understands,  and  to  Itself  turns  love 
and  smiling''  (Wicksteed's  translation.  Par. 
xxxiii.  124-126). 

This  vision  of  the  eternal  is  realized  in  the 
painting  upon  the  ribs  of  the  vaulting.  In 
the  centre,  where  the  ribs  join,  is  the  figure 


S.  Francesco 


157 


of  the  Almighty,  and  gathered  round  in  circle 
after  circle  are  figtires  illustrative  of  the 
apocalyptic  vision  in  parts  of  the  Revela- 
tions, chapters  iv.  and  vi.  In  the  first  circle 
there  may  still  be  seen  the  lamb  and  the 
altar.  In  the  second  circle  (following  from 
rib  to  rib)  are  the  four  living  things  having 
the  likenesses  of  a  lion,  a  calf,  the  face  of  a 
man,  and  an  eagle.  In  the  third  circle  are  the 
four  riders  on  the  white,  the  red,  the  black, 
and  the  pale  horses.  There  are  also  the 
lamps  which  signify  the  Seven  Spirits  of 
God. 

The  angelic  host  is  indicated  by  figures 
symbolizing  the  orders  of  the  heavenly 
hierarchy.  Seraphim  are  nearest  the  centre, 
cherubim,  with  two  faces,  come  next;  then 
there  are  figures  of  the  order  of  thrones, 
and  other  angels,  with  symbols  difficult 
to  recognize,  but  probably  representing 
the  rest  of  the  nine  orders.  There  are  also 
figures  representing  the  four  and  twenty 
elders.  Although  it  is  now  difficult  to  make 
a  satisfactory  identification  of  the  indi- 
vidual members  of  the  whole  scheme, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  intended 


158      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

to  represent  the  vision  which  was  seen  by 
the  hundred  and  forty  and  four  thousand 
servants  of  God,  who  were  sealed  in  their 
foreheads. 

This  vision  of  the  glory  of  God  is  the  con- 
summation of  the  whole  scheme  of  the  tran- 
septs of  the  lower  church.  The  life  of  Christ 
is  the  example  which  a  man  ought  to  set  be- 
fore him.  He  who  lives  under  the  rule  of 
holy  poverty,  holy  obedience,  and  holy 
chastity  is  following  in  the  footsteps  of 
Christ.  To  such  an  one  will  it  be  given,  as  it 
was  to  St.  E'rancis,  to  be  raised  up  to  enjoy 
the  enlightenment  of  the  everlasting  kingdom 
and  to  perceive  the  dispensation  of  the 
mystery  which  from  all  ages  hath  been  hid 
in  God." 

Frescoes  in  the  Nave  of  the  Lower  Church 

On  the  walls  of  the  nave  of  the  lower 
church  there  are  remains  of  frescoes  now 
hardly  distinguishable.  On  the  right  wall 
there  are  scenes  from  the  Passion  of  Christ, 
and  on  the  left  scenes  from  the  life  of  St. 
Francis. 


S.  Francesco 


159 


On  the  Right  Wall 
PLAN  VIII  (p.  149) 

Nos.  36  and  37  have  probably  formed  parts 
of  a  Crucifixion;  to  the  left  it  is  possible  to 
distinguish  Madonna  and  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist. 

No.  38.  Deposition  from  the  Cross. 

No.  39.  Entombment.  Christ  lies  upon 
the  rock,  women  are  gathered  about  the 
body. 

On  the  Left  Wall 

No.  40.  Francis  renoimces  the  world. 

No.  41.  The  Pope  sees  the  vision  of  a 
poor  man  supporting  the  Church  of  the 
Lateran. 

No.  42.  Francis  preaches  to  the  birds. 
No.  43.  Francis  receives  the  stigmata. 
No.  44.  Death  of  Francis  (close  to  the 
pulpit) . 

No.  45.  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  on  the 
wall  at  the  back  of  the  pulpit.  A  beautiful 
fresco  in  the  Florentine  manner.  Christ 
and  His  mother  are  seated  on  a  throne 
together,  they  turn  towards  each  other,  and 


i6o     The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

Madonna,  who  is  clothed  in  white  and  has 
a  white  veil  over  her  head,  folds  her  arms 
in  loving  adoration  and  receives  the  crown 
from  Christ.  At  each  side  of  the  throne 
nimbed  saints  and  angels  look  on  with  eager 

joy- 
No.  46  represents  a  scene  from  the  life 

of  St.  Stanislas,  Bishop  of  Cracow.  This 

bishop  was  canonized  in  the  church  by 

Innocent  IV.  in  1253.   King  Boleslas  having 

seized  a  piece  of  land  belonging  to  the  Church, 

the  bishop  raised  a  man  from  the  dead  to 

give  testimony  to  its  proper  ownership. 

In  No.  47,  Bishop  Stanislas  having  cen- 
sured the  disorders  of  the  king's  actions,  he 
is  murdered  by  order  of  the  king  while  at 
the  altar  on  the  7th  May,  1079. 

No.  48.  Remains  of  a  picture  of  the 
Crucifixion, 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  CHAPELS  OF  S.  FRANCESCO 

^J^HE  chapels  of  the  lower  church  have  been 
covered  with  paintings  setting  forth 
the  acts  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  St.  Stephen, 
St.  Lawrence,  St.  Catherine,  St.  Nicholas, 
and  St.  Martin,  all  of  them  examples  of  the 
Franciscan  virtues. 

The  mediaeval  history  of  St.  Mary  Magda-^ 
lene  is  confused  with  that  of  Mary  the  sister 
of  Lazarus,  and  with  various  legends.  She 
remains,  however,  the  great  example  of  the 
efficacy  of  contrition,  confession,  and 
penance. 

St.  Stephen  was  probably  honoured,  not 
only  as  the  first  martyr,  but  as  one  of  the 
first  deacons,  to  whom  the  care  of  the  poor 
was  confided  by  the  early  Church. 

St.  Lawrence,  also  a  deacon,  gave  all  the 

i6i 


i62      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy  . 

treasure  that  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  Chtirch  to  the  poor,  whom  he  sought  out 
night  and  day.  When  the  treasure  was 
demanded  of  him,  he  presented  the  poor 
people,  saying,  These  be  the  eternal 
treasure;  the  hands  of  these  have  borne 
the  treasure  to  heaven/' 

St.  Catherine  of  Alexandria,  though  she 
was  born  queen  of  her  country  and  was 
instructed  in  all  liberal  arts,  despised  the 
things  of  this  life  and  gave  herself  wholly 
to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  so  she  was 
mystically  imited  in  marriage  to  Him,  even 
as  St.  Francis  was  united  to  Holy  Poverty. 

St.  Nicholas,  according  to  legend,  fasted 
even  as  an  infant,  and  when  he  inherited 
his  father's  wealth  he  gave  it  away. 

St.  Martin,  as  a  youth,  renotmced  the 
world,  and  even  before  he  left  the  service 
of  the  emperor  his  charity  moved  him  to 
share  his  cloak  with  a  beggar.  He  renotmced 
not  only  the  world  but  all  its  allurements, 
so  that  when  straw  was  laid  for  his  bed  he 
threw  it  away  and  slept  on  the  ground. 

These  men  and  women  were  moved  by  a 
humility  that  knew  no  shame  except  in  the 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  163 

presence  of  a  humility  deeper  than  their 
own;  by  a  love  of  their  neighbours  without 
any  limit,  especially  for  the  poor  and  the 
sick ;  by  a  love  of  God  that  made  submission 
to  His  will  the  highest  joy. 

Frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Martin 
PLAN  IX  (p.  166) 

In  No.  49  Martin  divides  his  cloak  with 
a  beggar.  When  riding  out  of  Amiens  in 
winter  time,  Martin  met  a  poor  naked  man 
to  whom  no  one  gave  heed.  He  drew  his 
sword,  cut  his  mantle,  and  gave  half  of  it 
to  the  beggar. 

In  No.  50  Martin  lies  asleep;  he  sees  in  a 
vision  Jesus  Christ  wearing  the  mantle  he 
had  given  to  the  poor  man.  Angels  surround 
Christ,  who  points  to  the  sleeper;  they  have 
large  dull  faces  with  narrow  eyes,  and  hair 
arranged  in  heavy  coils,  characteristic  of 
the  Sienese  school. 

No.  51  shows  Martin  girt  with  the  sword 
and  spurs  of  knighthood.  The  yoimg  soldier, 
his  hands  clasped  in  prayer,  looks  up  with 
an  ecstatic  air  regardless  of  his  surroimdings. 


164      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

The  emperor,  who  binds  on  the  sword,  looks 
at  him  with  alarm,  tmcertain  what  such  a 
temper  may  mean.  To  the  right  of  the 
picture  a  commonplace  and  rather  gro- 
tesque group  celebrate  the  occasion  with 
music. 

No.  52.  St.  Martin  refuses  the  emperor's 
gift.  The  emperor  gives  money  to  the 
knights  who  fought  against  the  barbarians, 
and  in  the  backgrotmd  an  armed  soldier 
receives  his  share.  In  the  foreground  St. 
Martin  refuses  to  accept  the  gift.  The 
emperor,  seated  with  ball  and  sceptre  and 
wearing  a  garland,  looks  at  the  saint  with 
an  air  of  offence,  and  with  the  cunning 
amazement  natural  to  the  worldly  mind 
when  it  suddenly  finds  itself  in  the  presence 
of  the  spiritual  life.  Martin  holds  a  cross 
and  looks  over  his  shoulder  at  the  emperor; 
his  figure  is  a  marvel  of  detailed  realization, 
but  the  shade  of  disdain  which  passes  across 
his  features  fails  to  strike  the  true  note. 
The  soldier  who  stands  at  the  side  of  the 
principal  figure  has  something  of  the  same 
fantastic  character  as  the  man  with  the 
double  flute  in  the  last  fresco. 


MARTINI.          ST.  MARTIN  BEFORE  THE  EMPEROR 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  165 

In  No.  S3  St.  Martin  restores  a  child  to 
life.   This  fresco  is  much  damaged. 

No.  54.  St.  Martin  and  the  Emperor 
Valentinian.  St.  Martin  desired  to  have 
some  grant  from  the  emperor,  who  would 
not  see  him.  After  a  week's  fasting  an  angel 
bade  the  saint  go  to  the  palace,  and  told 
him  that  he  would  find  entrance.  When 
St.  Martin  appeared  before  Valentinian,  the 
emperor,  in  spite  of  his  anger,  was  forced 
to  confess  the  influence  of  divine  power. 
Rising  from  his  throne,  he  embraced  the 
saint  and  granted  that  which  was  desired. 

No.  55  is  the  mass  of  St.  Martin.  St. 
Martin,  going  to  church,  gave  his  own  cloth- 
ing to  a  poor  man;  and  his  archdeacon,  in 
contempt,  brought  him  a  common  garment 
from  the  market.  It  was  so  short  that  when 
the  saint  raised  his  arms  in  saying  mass  it 
was  seen  that  they  were  bare,  and  angels 
brought  sleeves  of  gold,  and  upon  his  head 
there  lighted  fire  from  above  as  upon  the 
heads  of  the  Apostles. 

No.  56  probably  represents  the  death  of 
St.  Martin. 

No.  57  probably  refers  to  the  revelation 


i66      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  167 

of  the  death  of  St.  Martin  made  to  St. 
Ambrose.  St.  Ambrose,  whilst  saying  mass, 
fell  asleep  between  the  lesson  of  the  prophecy 
and  the  Epistle.  After  waiting  for  three 
hours  for  leave  to  read  the  Epistle,  his 
clergy  awoke  him,  and  he  told  them  that  he 
had  been  at  the  burial  of  St.  Martin,  and 
that  in  disturbing  him  they  had  prevented 
him  making  an  end  of  the  prayers. 

No.  58  is  probably  the  fimeral  of  St. 
Martin. 

The  chapel  was  built  by  the  Franciscan 
Cardinal  Gentile  da  Montefiore.  Over  the 
entrance  there  is  a  picture  of  St.  Martin  raising 
the  kneeling  cardinal.  On  the  under  surface 
of  the  entrance  archway  there  are  painted  SS. 
Francis  and  Anthony,  SS.  Catherine  and 
Mary  Magdalene,  SS.  Louis  the  King  and 
Louis  the  Archbishop,  and  SS.  Chiara  and 
Elizabeth.  These  are  all  in  the  Sienese 
manner. 

There  are  six  lights  in  the  window.  The 
central  subjects  are  Christ  and  Madonna; 
perhaps  Martin  as  a  warrior  and  St.  Peter; 
St.  Martin  as  a  bishop  and  Cardinal  Gentile. 
In  the  lights  to  the  left  there  are,  SvS.  Gregory 


i68      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

and  Martin;  SS.  Francis  and  Nicholas;  a 
bishop  and  St.  Stephen.  In  the  Hghts  to 
the  right,  SS.  Jerome  and  Paul;  a  civilian 
with  a  palm  (?)  and  a  bishop;  and  SS. 
Anthony  of  Padua  and  Lorenzo. 

The  frescoes  in  this  chapel  show  able 
characterization.  The  emperor,  his  soldiers, 
the  camp  followers,  the  eager  spirit  of  the 
young  saint,  the  severe  gravity  of  the  elderly 
bishops,  are  all  well  rendered;  but  the 
individual  figures  are  not  fused  into  dra- 
matic representations.  There  is  a  marvellous 
care  in  detail  and  a  keen  sense  of  decorative 
effect  and  refinement. 

The  following  frescoes  form  a  represen- 
tation of  Sienese  art  in  S.  Francesco:  No.  23 
in  the  southern  transept,  Nos.  10  to  20  — 
the  Passion  scenes  —  in  the  northern  tran- 
sept, No.  31  also  in  that  transept,  and  Nos. 
49  to  58  in  the  Chapel  of  St.  Martin.  Hardly 
anywhere  else  except  in  Siena  or  S.  Gimi- 
gnano  can  a  collection  of  Sienese  art  be  seen 
on  the  same  grand  scale,  and  not  even  in 
these  places  is  there  the  same  opportunity 
of  comparing  the  Sienese  and  Florentine 
schools. 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  i6g 


Chapel  of  St.  Nicholas 

Chapel  of  St.  Nicholas,  or  the  Chapel  of 
the  Holy  Sacrament,  at  the  end  of  the 
southern  transept.  This  chapel  is  the 
burial-place  of  Napoleone  Orsini  (cardinal, 
1288-1342.^)  and  Giovanni  Orsini  (cardinal, 
1316-1355).  They  both  died  in  Avignon. 
The  tomb  of  Napoleone  is  still  to  be  seen. 
The  frescoes  are  gay  and  harmonious  in 
colour,  and  the  stories  are  told  in  a  simple, 
straightforward  way;  but  there  is  a  want  of 
power,  suggesting  the  hand  of  some  follower 
of  Giotto  who  was  not  fully  inspired  by  the 
new  style. 

PLAN  X  (p.  171) 

No.  59  is  a  series  of  Apostles;  ten  only 
now  remain. 

No.  60.  St.  Nicholas,  desiring  to  give  away 
the  riches  left  by  his  father,  and  hearing  that 
a  nobleman,  imable  to  give  marriage  portions 
to  his  daughters,  was  about  to  abandon 
them  to  an  evil  life,  went  by  night  and 
threw  gold  into  the  house,  so  that  there  was 
a  portion  for  each. 


lyo      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

No.  6i.  St.  Nicholas,  finding  that  a  consul 
had  corruptly  condemned  three  youths  to 
death,  took  with  him  three  princes  of  the 
emperor,  who  happened  to  have  been  driven 
into  port  by  the  wind,  and  seizing  the  sword 
with  which  the  executioner  was  about  to  kill 
the  youths,  he  imbound  them  and  took 
them  away  in  safety. 

No.  62.  St.  Nicholas  having  reproved  the 
consul  for  his  corrupt  judgment,  forgives 
him  at  the  entreaty  of  the  three  princes. 
This  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  series. 

No.  63.  The  three  princes  having  fallen 
out  of  favour  with  the  emperor  they  are 
imprisoned,  and  one  of  them  remembering 
St.  Nicholas,  they  all  prayed  to  him.  In 
the  night  the  saint  appeared  to  the  Emperor 
Constantine,  causing  him  so  much  fear  that 
he  examined  the  prisoners.  When  they 
had  told  him  of  the  life  of  St.  Nicholas  he 
bade  them  to  ask  for  the  prayers  of  the 
saint  for  himself  and  his  country,  and  set 
them  free. 

No.  64.  A  Jew  hearing  of  the  power  of 
St.  Nicholas  set  up  his  image  and  gave  his 
goods  to  the  keeping  of  the  saint.    He  was 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  171 


Plan  X.  —  Chapel  of  St.  Nicholas,  Lower  Church  of  San 


Francesco,  Assisi 


172      The  Umbnan  Cities  of  Italy 

robbed  of  everything  except  the  image. 
Then  the  Jew  beat  it  and  abused  it.  St. 
Nicholas  appearing  to  the  thieves,  caused 
them  to  restore  what  they  had  taken,  and 
both  the  thieves  and  the  Jew  were  converted 
to  the  truth. 

No.  65.  A  man  who  observed  the  feast  of 
St.  Nicholas  every  year  was  busy  making 
ready  for  it  when  the  devil  appeared  as  a 
pilgrim.  The  man  bade  his  son  give  alms, 
and  the  pilgrim,  when  followed  by  the 
child,  seized  and  strangled  him.  The 
father  upbraided  St.  Nicholas  and  prayed 
to  him,  and  the  child  came  to  life 
again. 

No.  66.  A  rich  man  had  a  son  granted  to 
him  through  the  intercession  of  St.  Nicholas. 
The  boy  was  captured  by  a  pagan  king,  and 
was  caused  to  serve  him.  On  the  feast  of 
the  saint  the  boy,  remembering  the  annual 
celebration  in  his  father's  house,  was  sorrow- 
ful, and  when  the  king  knew  the  cause  he 
defied  the  saint,  and  said  the  boy  should 
continue  to  serve  him.  Suddenly  a  strong 
wind  carried  the  child,  and  set  him  down 
at  his  father's  house. 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  173 

In  No.  66a  the  parents  of  the  child  receive 
him  with  great  joy. 

No.  67  is  St.  John  the  Baptist. 

No.  68  is  probably  St.  Mary  Magda- 
lene. 

No.  69.  A  figure  of  Christ  to  whom  St. 
Francis  and  St.  Nicholas  present  the  two 
Orsini  cardinals. 

No.  70.  On  the  under  surface  of  the  entrance 
arch  there  are  twelve  saints :  — 

SS.  Rufinus  and  Nicholas. 

SS.  Francis  and  Anthony  of  Padua. 

SS.  Sabinus  and  Victorinus. 

SS.  George  and  Adrianus. 

SS.  Chiara  and  a  Queen. 

SS.  Agnes  and  perhaps  Elizabeth. 

There  are  three  windows  with  two  lights 
each. 

To  the  left  —  SS.  Vincentius  and 
Francis,  SS;  Agostinus  and  Adrianus  (?), 
SS.  Victorinus  and  Rufinus.  In  the 
centre  —  Christ  and  St.  Francis,  SS. 
Gregory  (?)  and  Nicholas.  To  the  right  — 
SS.  Stephen  and  Lorenzo,  SS.  Francis 
and  Anthony,  SS.  Jerome  and  Greg- 
ory. 


174      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


The  Chapel  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene 

The  frescoes  in  this  chapel  are  among  the 
best  in  the  lower  church;  they  are  worthy 
of  the  most  careful  study,  and  they  should 
be  compared  with  other  examples  of  the 
best  Florentine  fourteenth  century  paint- 
ing. The  frescoes  are  concerned  with  the 
mediaeval  account  of  the  life  of  St.  Mary 
Magdalene. 

On  the  roof  of  the  chapel :  — 

PLAN  XI  (p.  176) 

Nos.  71,  72,  73  and  74  represent  respect- 
ively Christ,  Lazarus,  Martha  and  Mary. 

No.  75  shows  Christ  in  the  house  of  the 
Pharisee.  Mary  Magdalene  anoints  the  feet 
of  Christ.  Christ  and  two  disciples  sit  at 
table  with  the  Pharisee  and  a  guest.  The 
contrast  between  the  dignified  Christ  and 
the  resentful  air  of  the  Jews  is  striking. 

No.  76  depicts  the  raising  of  Lazarus. 
This  is  one  of  the  great  pictures  in  early 
Tuscan  art.  It  is  an  instance  of  how  the 
best  Florentines  could  deal  with  the  deepest 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  175 

mysteries  of  life  in  the  most  impressive 
manner,  and  yet  bring  them  within  the  range 
of  average  mankind  by  the  subtle  perception 
of  the  human  element,  which  lies  hidden  in 
the  impenetrable  enigma  of  the  universe. 
The  painter  makes  us  feel  that  we  are  in  the 
presence  of  infinite  power,  and  that  we  share 
in  its  manifestation. 

No.  77.  Noli  me  tangere.  Mary  kneels 
before  Christ;  she  obeys  the  command,  but 
she  reaches  forward  in  loving  anxiety. 

The  mediaeval  life  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene 
goes  on  to  relate  how  she,  her  brother 
Lazarus,  Martha,  and  other  Christians  were 
sent  to  sea  in  a  rudderless  boat.  They  were, 
however,  guided  by  God,  and  they  landed  at 
Marseilles.  The  prince  and  princess  of  the 
coimtry  heard  the  preaching  of  Mary,  and 
offered  to  believe,  if  she  would  obtain  the 
grace  of  a  son  for  them. 

They  set  out  to  Palestine  to  learn  of 
St.  Peter.  On  the  way  the  child  was  born, 
and  the  princess  died.  The  child  was  laid 
beside  her  on  a  rocky  island,  and  the  prince 
went  on  to  Jerusalem,  and  was  taught  by 
St.  Peter  for  two  years.   On  his  return  they 


176      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


Plan  XI.  —  Chapel  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  Lower  Church  of 
San  Francesco,  Assisi 


found  the  child  alive,  and  the  princess  also 
revived. 

In  fresco  No.  78  two  angels  guide  the  boat 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  177 

towards  Marseilles,  and  there  is  also  an  in- 
dication of  the  return  of  the  ship  with  the 
prince  from  Palestine. 

No.  79.  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  in  order  to 
enjoy  holy  contemplation,  retired  to  the 
desert,  and  dwelt  in  a  cave  for  thirty  years. 
Angels  raised  her  up  daily  irito  the  air,  and 
she  was  fed  with  celestial  food. 

No.  80.  A  priest  who  had  also  become  a 
hermit  saw  this,  and  when  he  was  permitted 
to  speak  with  her  she  bade  him  warn  St. 
Maximin  that  she  was  coming  to  receive 
communion  before  her  death. 

No.  81.  St.  Mary  Magdalene  receives  the 
communion  from  St.  Maximin.  The  saint 
kneels  before  the  bishop,  who  stands  at  the 
altar.  She  died  where  she  knelt,  and  her 
soul  went  up  to  the  Lord  borne  by  four 
angels.  This  vision  of  the  translation  is 
particularly  fine. 

,  No.  82.  Bishop  Pontano  kisses  the  hand 
of  St.  Mary  Magdalene. 

No.  83  is  St.  Martha. 

In  No.  84  Bishop  Pontano  kneels  before 
S.  Rufino.  The  figures  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  entrance  to  the  chapel  can  hardly  be 


178      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

distinguished.  At  the  top  of  the  arch  there 
is  what  seems  to  be  a  figure  of  Christ  in  the 
form  of  the  Sun  of  Righteousness.  There 
are  also  SS.  Matthew  and  Peter,  and  probably 
St.  Paul,  St.  Paul  the  Hermit,  and  St. 
Anthony  the  Abbot.  The  women  saints 
have  been  supposed  to  be  SS.  Catherine  and 
Agatha,  and  SS.  Agnes,  and  perhaps  Rosa. 

There  are  four  lights  in  the  window.  To 
the  left  are  Christ,  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  and 
two  other  doubtful  figures  (No.  i). 

No.  2  represents  Madonna  and  Child ;  St. 
Mary  Magdalene  in  prayer;  St.  Mary 
Magdalene  receiving  a  garment  from  an 
angel  (?);  St.  Mary  Magdalene  receiving 
the  Sacrament  (?). 

No.  3.  Noli  me  tangere,  Christ  and  St.  Mary 
Magdalene,  and  two  other  doubtful  subjects. 

No.  4  shows  Christ  in  the  house  of  the  Phari- 
see; the  Raising  of  Lazarus;  Martha  and 
Mary  kneeling  before  Christ ;  St.  Mary  Mag- 
dalene anointing  the  feet  of  Christ, 

Chapel  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua 

The  frescoes  in  this  chapel  are  attributed 
to  Sermei  (1610).    They  are  of  no  interest 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  179 

except  as  relating  miracles  connected  with 
St.  Anthony  of  Padua.  If  the  spectator 
stands  with  his  back  to  the  window  he  will 
have  to  his  right  in  the  lunette :  — 

PLAN  XII  (p.  180) 

St.  Anthony  preaching  to  Pope  Gregory 
IX.  (No.  86). 

To  the  left  (No.  87),  is  the  Miracle,  worked 
in  Rimini  in  order  that  a  certain  Bovidilla, 
who  did  not  believe  in  the  Real  Presence, 
might  be  convinced  of  its  power.  Carrying 
the  Host  in  procession  the  saints  met  the 
mule  of  the  unbeliever.  The  animal  knelt 
down,  though  its  master  tempted  it  to 
neglect  the  presence  of  the  Host  by  offering 
it  food. 

Below  the  Preaching  of  St.  Anthony  " 
and  near  the  window  (No.  88)  there  are 
some  remains  of  pictures,  probably  referring 
to  the  story  of  how  the  father  of  St.  Anthony, 
who  lived  in  Lisbon,  was  falsely  accused  of 
a  murder.  The  saint  was  in  Italy,  but  in 
answer  to  prayer  he  appeared  before  the 
judges  and  caused  the  body  of  the  dead  man 


i8o      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


Plan  XII.  —  Chapel  of  St.  Anthony  in  the  Lower  Chapel  of 
San  Francesco,  Assisi 


to  give  evidence,  so  that  his  father  was 
cleared  of  suspicion. 

The  scenes  in  the  window  relate  to  the 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  -  i8i 

history  of  the  saint.  In  one  of  the  Hghts 
there  is  a  picture  of  him  preaching  to  the 
fishes.  On  the  under  surface  of  the  entrance 
arch  are  the  disciples  of  St.  Francis  (No.  89). 

Chapel  of  St,  Louis  the  King  or  of  St.  Stephen 

The  frescoes  on  the  walls  of  this  chapel  are 
attributed  to  Dono  Doni.  They  are  of  no 
interest.  The  frescoes  on  the  roof  have 
been  attributed  to  Llngegno. 

PLAN  XIII  (p.  182) 

No.  94.  The  Condemnation  of  St.  Stephen. 
No.  95.  St.  Stephen  led  away  to  be  stoned. 
No.  96.  The  Stoning. 

On  the  roof,  the  prophets  and  sibyls  are 
associated  in  prophesying  of  Christ. 

No  90  {over  the  window).  Daniel  ix.  24. — 
The  prophecy  referred  to  is  that  concerning 
the  seventy  weeks.  The  sibyl  prophesies 
the  birth  from  a  virgin. 

No.  91  (over  the  entrance  arch).  Jeremiah 
xxxi.  22  —  The  Lord  hath  created  a  new 
thing  in  the  earth.'*  Sibyl  Tiburtina  — 
Christ  bom  in  Bethlehem.'' 

No.  92.  Micah  v.  2  —    But  thou,  Beth- 


i82      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


90 


51 


96 


/ 

Plan  XIII.  — Chapel  of  St.  Louis  the  King,  Lower  Church 
of  San  Francesco,  Assisi 

lehem  Ephratah,  though  thou  be  little  among 
the  thousands  of  Judah."  Sibyl  Persica  — 
"  The  invisible  word  is  seen  and  touched/' 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  183 

No.  93.  Psalm  xvi.  10  —  Neither  wilt 
Thou  suffer  Thy  Holy  One  to  see  corrup- 
tion/' Cumean  Sibyl  —  After  having  been 
in  the  tomb  for  three  days  He  will  arise/' 

The  window  has  four  lights.  To  the  left 
are:  — 

The  Angel  of  St.  Matthew,  St.  Louis  the 
Archbishop,  St.  Louis  the  King   (No.  i). 

No.  2  shows  the  Eagle  of  St.  John,  Christ 
in  blessing,  and  St.  Francis. 

No.  3  shows  the  Ox  of  St.  Luke,  the  Virgin 
Crowned,  a  Franciscan  Saint  (?). 

The  Lion  of  St.  Mark,  and  a  Queen  are 
in  No.  4. 

Between  the  chapels  of  St.  Anthony  and 
St.  Stephen  there  is  a  picture  of  the  Martyr- 
dom of  St.  Lawrence,  with  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  and  the  Bishops  Rufinus  and 
Victor. 

Chapel  of  St.   Catherine  or  Cappella  del 
Crocefisso 

This  chapel  is  the  burial-place  of  Cardinal 
Egidio  Albornoz,  who  died  in  1367.  The 
frescoes  are  in  very  bad  condition. 


184      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


PLAN  XIV  (p.  185) 

No.  97  probably  refers  to  the  story  of 
how  St.  Catherine  was  led  to  go  out  from 
Alexandria  into  the  desert,  and  was  there 
mystically  married  to  Christ. 

No.  98.  When  the  Emperor  Maxentius 
came  to  Alexandria  Christians  were  con- 
demned to  death.  St.  Catherine  appeared 
before  the  emperor  and  argued  with  him. 
He  sent  for  wise  men  to  convince  Catherine, 
and  she  converted  them  to  Christianity. 

In  No.  99  the  wise  men  are  condemned, 
bound,  and  cast  into  the  fire. 

St.  Catherine  is  cast  into  prison  (No.  100). 
The  queen  and  Porphyry  visit  her,  and  are 
converted. 

The  emperor  fotmd  that  Catherine  had 
suffered  nothing  from  starvation  while  in 
prison,  and  in  his  wrath  he  ordered  two 
wheels  to  be  made  so  that  they  should  break 
all  that  came  between  them.  St.  Catherine 
prayed  to  God,  and  an  angel  destroyed  the 
wheels  (No.  loi). 

In  No.  102  the  queen  upbraids  the  em- 
peror, and  declares  herself  a  Christian. 


The  Chapels  of  S.  Francesco  185 


Plan  XIV.  —  Chapel  of  St.  Catherine,  Lower  Church  of  San 
Francesco,  Assisi 


No.  103.  The  queen  is  tortured  and  be- 
headed. 

No.  104.  St.  Catherine  i^  beheaded. 


i86      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

No.  105  depict  Bishops  Blasius,  Eugenius, 
and  St.  Louis. 

No.  106  shows  St.  Francis  and  two  un- 
certain pictures;  one  of  them  is  supposed 
to  represent  the  consecration  of  Cardinal 
Albomoz. 

The  figures  in  the  windows  have  not  been 
fully  identified.  The  central  lights  contain 
Madonna  and  Child,  St.  Catherine,  SS.  Agnes 
and  Lucy,  and  St.  Francis  and  Sta.  Chiara. 

The  Tomb  of  St,  Francis 

The  tomb  of  St.  Francis  is  in  a  sub- 
terranean chapel,  which  is  reached  by  stairs 
descending  from  the  nave  of  the  lower 
church.  Francis  is  said  to  have  foreseen 
that  his  body  should  receive  great  honour 
after  his  death,  and  so  will  it  be  for  the 
praise  of  my  God,  and  by  His  grace" 
{Mirror  of  Perfection,  cix.). 


CHAPTER  VIII 


OTHER  CHURCHES 

The  Church  of  Sta.  Chiara 

THIS  was  the  church  raised  in  honour 
of  the  saint  after  her  death. 
The  building  was  begun  in  1257  ^pon  a 
piece  of  ground  beside  the  old  parish  church 
of  S.  Giorgio,  which  was  incorporated  in 
the  new  structure.  The  hospital  belonging 
to  S.  Giorgio  became  the  convent  to  which 
the  poor  ladies  were  transferred  from 
S.  Damiano. 

It  was  in  the  parish  church  that  St.  Francis 
had  learned  to  read  and  write,  and  it  was 
here  that  his  body  lay  until  the  Church  of 
S.  Francesco  was  built. 

The  main  incidents  in  the  life  of  Sta. 
Chiara  of  which  we  have  any  record,  are  as 
follows.    She  was  the  daughter  of  Favorino 

1S7 


i88      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Scifi,  a  noble,  whose  castle  stood  on  the 
outskirts  of  Assisi  in  the  direction  of  the 
Carceri.  Sta.  Chiara  had  listened  to  the 
preaching  of  St.  Francis.  She  was  inspired 
with  an  enthusiasm  for  the  ideal  of  Kfe  which 
he  set  before  men.  She  determined  to 
follow  his  example,  to  leave  everything,  and 
to  take  up  the  life  of  holy  poverty.  St. 
Francis  advised  her  to  make  the  definite 
renunciation  on  Palm  Sunday  of  the  year 
121 2.  In  the  cathedral,  on  the  morning  of 
that  day,  she  remained  kneeling  in  prayer 
while  the  rest  of  the  congregation  went  up 
to  the  altar  to  receive  the  branches  of  palms. 
Thereupon  the  bishop  himself  came  towards 
her  and  placed  the  palm  in  her  hand. 

That  night  she  left  her  father's  house  and 
went  down  to  the  Porziuncola,  where  she 
was  received  by  Francis.  She  changed  her 
dress  for  a  plain  grey  habit,  her  hair  was 
shorn  off,  and  thus  she  marked  her  re- 
nunciation of  the  world  and  her  determina- 
tion to  become  a  servant  of  the  poor. 

Soon  after  she  was  joined  by  her  sister 
Agnes,  by  her  mother  Ortolana,  and  by 
some  members  of  another  noble  family,  the 


Other  Churches  189 


Ubaldini.  They  received  the  chapel  and 
convent  of  S.  Damiano  from  St.  Francis, 
and  here  they  lived  a  laborious  life  of  de- 
votion, observing  strictly  the  rule  of  poverty. 
Sta.  Chiara  died  at  the  age  of  sixty.  For 
some  years  before  her  death  she  had  lost 
the  use  of  her  limbs,  but  this  did  not  prevent 
her  from  continuing  to  labour  in  the  spinning 
of  flax,  which  the  sisters  used  for  making 
altar  cloths. 

After  her  death  in  1253  the  commimity 
was  removed  for  greater  safety  to  S.  Giorgio 
within  the  walls  of  Assisi. 

The  church  is  a  Gothic  building  of  red 
and  white  stone,  with  large  flying  buttresses, 
which  add  to  the  picturesque  and  imposing 
appearance  of  the  structure.  The  architect 
was  Fra  Filippo  da  Campello,  and  the  wheel 
window  designed  by  him  in  the  western 
facade  is  justly  famed  for  its  beauty. 

The  interior  is  light  and  spacious,  with  a 
high  vaulted  roof.  The  bare  walls  were  at 
one  time  covered  with  frescoes,  now  hidden 
tmder  a  coating  of  whitewash.  The  only 
paintings  of  importance  that  remain  are  in 
the  vaulting  of  the  roof  above  the  high 


igo      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

altar.  The  colour  of  these  pictures  is  light 
and  harmonious,  and  the  general  effect  is 
very  beautiful.  They  celebrate  the  most 
famous  Christian  virgins. 

Beginning  with  the  diagonal  towards  the 
apse  the  saints  are:  the  Virgin  Mary  and 
Sta.  Chiara.  To  the  right  of  these  are  saints 
Cecilia  and  Lucia.  Then  follows  Agnes,  the 
sister  of  Sta.  Chiara,  and  a  Franciscan  nun 
whose  name  is  indecipherable.  The  two 
remaining  figures  to  the  left  of  the  Virgin 
are  saints  Margaret  and  Catherine. 

Opening  out  of  the  south  transept  is  the 
Chapel  of  St.  Agnes,  which  contains  an 
interesting  portrait  of  Sta.  Chiara,  said  to 
be  the  work  of  Cimabue.  The  painting  is 
mainly  in  two  colours,  red  and  black;  and 
there  are  eight  scenes  from  the  life  of  the 
saint  at  the  sides. 

The  portrait  is  that  of  a  tall,  middle-aged 
woman  with  a  thin,  worn  face.  She  wears  a 
roughly  made  black  dress  and  hood.  She 
has  a  cord  rotmd  her  waist,  her  feet  are 
bare.  The  picture  is  not  beautiful,  but  it 
has  the  appearance  of  being  a  faithful 
record. 


Other  Churches  191 


The  scenes  are  as  follows,  beginning  with 
the  lowest  panel  on  the  left. 

(i.)  Sta.  Chiara  receives  a  palm  branch 
from  the  bishop. 

(2.)  She  meets  St.  Francis  and  the  Frati 
at  the  Porziimcola. 

(3.)  She  makes  her  vows  of  rentmciation, 
and  her  hair  is  cut  off. 

(4,)  Her  parents  try  to  force  her  to  return 
to  them. 

On  the  right,  beginning  at  the  top :  — 

(5.)  St.  Agnes  joins  her  sister. 

(6.)  Sta.  Chiara  blesses  the  bread  on  the 
occasion  when  Innocent  IV.  came  to  visit 
her. 

(7.)  The  death  of  the  saint. 

(8.)  The  translation  of  the  body  from  S. 
Damiano  to  S.  Giorgio.  On  the  opposite 
wall  of  the  chapel  is  a  picture  of  Madonna 
and  Child,  attributed  by  some  authorities 
to  Cimabue. 

Crossing  the  nave  we  enter  on  the  right 
the  side  chapel  of  S.  Giorgio,  once  the  parish 
church,  where  the  bodies  of  both  St.  Francis 
and  Sta.  Chiara  were  kept  until  the  new 
buildings  were  ready.    On  the  wall  of  en- 


192      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

trance  are  paintings  by  an  unknown  artist 
of  the  Sienese  school. 

At  the  top,  the  Annunciation;  below  on 
the  left,  St.  George  kills  the  Dragon.  In 
the  centre  is  the  Nativity  of  Christ;  and  on 
the  right,  the  Visit  of  the  Magi.  The  frescoes 
are  of  no  great  interest,  and  the  designs  are 
conventional.  The  flesh  tints  are  unusually 
pale,  and  the  predominant  colour  of  the 
draperies  and  background  is  a  dull  red. 

Behind  the  altars  are  frescoes  by  another 
hand,  representing  the  Deposition  from  the 
Cross,  the  Entombment,  and  the  Resurrec- 
tion. 

Below  these  paintings,  and  a  little  to  the 
right,  are  several  exceedingly  lovely  figures 
in  bright  delicate  colours.  In  the  centre  is 
the  Virgin,  enthroned;  on  the  left,  St.  John 
the  Baptist  and  Sta.  Chiara;  on  the  right, 
St.  George  and  St.  Francis.  These  paintings 
have  been  attributed  to  Giotto,  but  they 
have  the  characteristics  of  a  Sienese  rather 
rather  than  of  a  Florentine  master. 

In  the  same  chapel  there  is  a  triptych  by 
an  artist  of  the  school  of  Giotto.  In  the 
centre  is  the  Crucifixion;   on  the  left  are 


Other  Churches 


Sta.  Chiara  and  her  sister  Agnes.  On  the 
right,  S.  Rufino  and  St.  Agnes  of  Rome. 

Here  also  is  shown  the  Byzantine  crucifix 
from  S.  Damiano,  whence  Francis  received 
the  message. 

Returning  to  the  nave,  behind  the  high 
altar  is  a  large  crucifix  of  the  school  of 
Margaritone  of  Arezzo  (1236-13 13?).  An 
inscription  upon  the  picture  says  that  it 
was  painted  by  order  of  Benedicta,  who 
succeeded  Sta.  Chiara,  and  was  the  first 
abbess  in  the  new  convent. 

On  the  walls  of  the  right  transept  are 
fragments  of  frescoes,  from  which  the  white- 
wash has  been  removed.  The  lower  range 
seems  to  have  been  a  series  of  scenes  from 
the  life  of  Sta.  Chiara;  the  upper  row  illus- 
trate the  life  of  Christ.  Portions  of  the  Flight 
into  Egypt  and  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents 
are  still  visible. 

From  the  centre  of  the  nave  a  staircase 
leads  down  to  the  crypt  where  the  body  of 
the  saint  is  preserved.  Another  stairway 
leads  up  to  the  spot  where  the  stone  coffin 
containing  the  remains  was  discovered  in 
1850  under  the  high  altar.   The  large  blocks 


194     The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

of  stone  show  how  much  care  had  been 
taken  to  provide  a  secure  and  secret  place 
for  the  safe  keeping  of  the  great  treasure. 

The  crypt  is  decorated  with  paintings  in 
monochrome  executed  in  1862.  They  repre- 
sent the  incidents  in  the  life  of  the  saint 
which  have  already  been  described,  and 
the  subjects  will  be  easily  recognized. 

The  body  of  Sta.  Chiara,  clothed  in  a 
black  habit,  is  shown  behind  a  glass  window. 

Cappella  dei  Pellegrini 

This  is  the  oratory  attached  to  a  hospital 
for  the  entertainment  of  pilgrims  who  come 
to  visit  the  tomb  of  St.  Francis. 

The  chapel  is  dedicated  in  the  names  of 
St.  James  Major,  the  patron  of  pilgrims,  and 
of  St.  Anthony  the  Abbot. 

The  frescoes  on  the  outside  wall  and  in 
the  interior  are  by  two  artists,  Matteo  da 
Gualdo  (work  dated  1468)  and  Pier  Antonio 
da  Foligno,  called  Mezzastris  (working  as 
late  as  1482). 

The  works  of  Matteo  da  Gualdo  show  the 
influence  of  Boccati  da  Camerino,  while 


Other  Churches  195 


Mezzastris  was  a  scholar  of  Benozzo 
Gozzoli. 

Neither  Matteo  nor  Mezzastris  were  com- 
petent artists.  They  take  their  place  with 
Melanzio,  who  painted  at  Montefalco,  and 
other  secondary  masters  of  the  Umbrian 
school.  Such  painting  has,  however,  some 
interest  as  illustrating  how  even  in  small 
mountain  villages  a  succession  of  painters 
fotmd  occupation  and  reward. 

The  fresco  on  the  outside  wall  above  the 
door  is  much  damaged.  It  is  attributed  by 
some  to  Matteo  da  Gualdo  and  by  others 
to  Mezzastris. 

The  subject  is  Christ  Enthroned,  holding 
a  book  with  the  inscription,  I  am  the  way 
and  the  truth.'' 

Roimd  about  is  a  glory  of  angels;  eight 
of  them  are  playing  instruments,  four  others 
hold  scrolls  with  inscriptions.  On  either 
side  are  the  titulary  saints.  Only  half  of 
the  figure  of  St.  James  remains ;  he  carries  a 
pilgrim's  staff.  On  the  right  is  St.  Anthony 
the  Abbot.  Round  the  corner  of  the  building 
to  the  left  are  traces  of  a  huge  figure  of 
St.  Christopher. 


196      Ihe  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

In  the  interior.  On  the  wall  opposite  to 
the  entrance  above  the  altar,  Matteo  da 
Gualdo  painted  a  Madonna  and  Child  en- 
throned with  Saints  James  and  Anthony. 
In  the  lunette  above,  which  is  pierced  by  a 
window,  is  the  Annunciation,  with  angels 
singing  praises  from  the  earth  and  from  the 
heavens.  At  the  side  of  the  Virgin  the 
artist  has  placed  a  little  lion,  which  may 
have  a  symbolical  reference  to  the  Lion  of 
Judah. 

The  pictures  on  the  side  walls  are  by 
Mezzastris.  On  the  right,  on  entering,  is 
the  story  of  the  miraculous  help  given  by 
St.  James  Major  to  some  pilgrims  on  their 
way  to  Compostella. 

The  son  of  a  certain  German,  while  journey- 
ing to  the  shrine  along  with  his  parents, 
was  wrongfully  accused  of  theft.  He  was 
condemned  to  be  hanged,  but  the  saint 
coming  to  the  help  of  the  innocent  youth 
placed  his  hand  under  the  feet  of  the  young 
man,  who  by  means  of  this  invisible  support 
remained  uninjured.  This  is  the  subject  of 
the  scene  nearest  to  the  door. 

The   landscape   behind   the   figures  is 


IT 


Other  Churches  197 


ctiriously  conventional.  The  colour  of  the 
mountains  is  a  vivid  pink,  while  the  objects 
in  the  foregrotind  are  grotesquely  out  of 
proportion.  No  attempt  is  made  to  tell  the 
story  dramatically.  The  bereaved  parents, 
discovering  after  several  days  that  their 
son  still  lived,  hastened  to  the  judge  who 
had  condemned  him.  At  this  point  his- 
torians differ  as  to  what  took  place.  Accord- 
ing to  some,  the  parents,  finding  the  judge 
at  table,  related  the  marvellous  news  that 
they  had  found  their  son  alive.  The  judge 
mockingly  replied,  If  your  son  liveth  so 
do  those  fowls  in  the  dish,"  and  the  roasted 
birds  immediately  rose  up  before  him  alive. 
According  to  others  the  parents  urged  the 
innocence  of  their  son  before  the  sceptical 
judge,  who  replied,  I  should  as  soon 
believe  that  these  fowls  were  alive  as  in  the 
innocency  of  the  young  man."  At  the  same 
moment  the  fowls  rose  to  prove  his  error. 

The  figures  seated  at  table  are  fairly 
natural,  but  the  standing  figures  and  those 
in  movement  are  particularly  wooden. 

Two  scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  Anthony 
the  Abbot  are  on  the  wall  to  the  left  of 


The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


entrance,  illustrating  the  charity  of  the 
saint. 

Nearest  to  the  altar,  we  see  St.  Anthony 
distributing  alms  to  the  blind,  the  sick,  and 
the  lame.  The  figure  of  the  old  hermit  is  a 
dignified  presentment,  and  the  beggars  ex- 
press their  eagerness  and  gratitude  with 
natural  gestures.  In  the  background  is  a 
rudimentary  landscape. 

The  next  scene  describes  how  food  was 
miraculously  provided  for  the  saint.  Six 
animals,  intended  possibly  to  represent 
camels,  burdened  with  provisions,  kneel 
down  before  St.  Anthon5%  who  is  seated  at 
the  door  of  a  church.  The  monks  grouped 
round  him  raise  their  hands  in  astonishment 
or  fold  them  in  prayer. 

In  the  vaulting  of  the  roof  are  four  figures, 
bishops  and  cardinals  or  other  dignitaries 
of  the  Church.  It  has  been  assumed  that 
they  represent  the  four  Latin  doctors  of 
the  Church,  but  Canon  EHsei,  who  has 
written  a  pamphlet  upon  the  chapel,  thinks 
that  the  figures  have  a  closer  connection 
with  the  subjects  illustrated  on  the  walls. 
He  indentifies  the  Pope  as  Leo  III.,  who 


Other  Churches  199 


authenticated  the  existence  of  the  body  of 
St.  James  at  Comostella.  The  bishop  to 
the  left  is  St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  who  wrote 
upon  the  preaching  of  the  Apostle  in  Spain. 
The  other  bishop  is  St.  Augustine,  the 
eulogizer  of  St.  Anthony  the  Abbot,  and  the 
cardinal  is  S.  Bonaventura,  canonized  in 
1482,  the  author  of  a  treatise  upon  the 
life  of  the  religious.  Above  the  door  of 
entrance  is  the  figure  of  Christ  surrounded 
by  kneeling  angels.  On  the  left  is  St.  James; 
on  the  right,  St.  Anthony  and  the  yotmg 
saint  Ansano,  who  holds  his  lungs  in  his 
hand.  S.  Ansano  is  the  patron  of  those 
who  suffer  from  pulmonary  affections. 


Orvieto 


PART  II  —  ORVIETO 


CHAPTER  I 

HISTORY  OF  THE  TOWN 

ORVIETO  stands  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Volsinii,  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  powerful  cities  of  the  Etruscan  con- 
federation. HostiUties  between  the  Vol- 
sinians  and  Romans  began  in  362  B.C.,  and 
continued  over  a  period  of  nearly  one 
hundred  years.  The  citizens  of  the  Etruscan 
town  had  become  famous  for  their  wealth, 
and  for  their  luxurious  and  effeminate 
habits.  They  had  ceased  even  to  trouble 
themselves,  it  was  said,  with  the  burdens  of 
ruling,  and  allowed  the  government  of  the 
commonwealth  to  be  managed  by  slaves. 
They  shared  in  the  general  defeat  of  the 
Etruscans  at  the  Vadimonian  Lake  in 
310  B.C.,  and  were  finally  subjugated  by 

203 


204      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

the  Romans  in  280  b.c.  The  conquerors 
were  amazed  with  many  of  the  appHances 
of  civilization  which  they  fotind,  and  Pliny 
repeats  the  statement  that  not  less  than 
two  thousand  statues  were  carried  off  by 
the  Romans  from  this  city  alone.  The 
inhabitants  took  refuge  on  the  shores  of  the 
Lake  of  Bolsena,  and  there  a  new  Volsinii 
grew  up;  while  a  Roman  town  gradually 
arose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Etruscan  city,  and 
was  called  Urbsvetus,  of  which  the  name 
Orvieto  is  a  corruption. 

The  number  of  tombs  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  the  large  collection  of  works  of 
art  derived  from  them,  are  abimdant  evi- 
dence of  the  size  and  importance  of  the 
Etruscan  city,  which  must  have  existed  for 
five  or  six  hundred  years.  Very  few  and 
only  insignificant  traces  remain  of  the 
Roman  dominion. 

The  history  of  Orvieto  in  the  middle  ages 
resembles  that  of  many  other  Italian  com- 
munes. It  is  a  history  of  the  struggle 
between  the  discordant  elements  which  made 
up  the  population  of  that  confined  space  — 
a  walled  city.    The  citizens  from  an  early 


History  of  the  Town  205 


period  were  divided  by  opposing  interests, 
due  to  differences  in  race,  with  the  con- 
sequent differences  in  poHtical  and  reHgious 
sympathies. 

The  commune,  originally  governed  by 
consuls,  was  Guelph  in  sympathy,  and  as  a 
rule  kept  upon  friendly  terms  with  the 
papal  power.  During  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  the  town  succeeded  in 
mastering  many  of  the  neighbouring  feudal 
lords,  and  compelled  them  to  become  citizens 
within  her  walls.  Thus  were  sown  the  seeds 
of  an  endless  political  and  religious  division 
in  the  town,  for  the  incomers  were  generally 
Ghibelline  and  imperial  in  their  politics, 
and  anti-papal,  perhaps  even  heretical,  in 
their  religious  sympathies.  In  order  to  re- 
press these  tendencies.  Bishop  Riccardo  from 
1171  to  1201  carried  on  a  vigorous  crusade 
in  the  town  against  heresy,  and  many  of  the 
inhabitants  were  tortured  and  put  to  death. 
This,  however,  did  not  prove  an  effective 
means  of  procuring  permanent  peace,  and 
the  creation  of  a  new  officer,  a  podestk, 
for  that  purpose  in  1199  was  equally  un- 
successful.    The  factions  were  known  as 


2o6      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

**  Ecclesiastici,"  and  Eretici/'  rather  than 
as  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  and  the  balance 
of  power  lay  with  the  ecclesiastical  party. 

Alliances  were  frequently  made  with  Flor- 
ence, and  the  various  forms  of  government 
^  adopted  by  that  republic  were  copied  by 
the  Orvietans. 

The  two  chief  families  were  the  Monal- 
deschi,  whose  sympathies  were  with  the 
Guelphs,  and  the  Filippeschi,  adherents  of 
the  Ghibelline  party.  Continual  dissensions 
arose  between  the  two  factions.  But  in 
spite  of  this  disunion  the  commime  grew 
in  power  and  wealth. 

It  was  a  favourite  retreat  with  the  Popes, 
who  enriched  the  city  with  several  fine 
palaces;  and  the  citizens  erected  large 
mtinicipal  buildings  as  residences  for  their 
podestks  and  captains  of  the  people.  The 
massive  and  imposing  dwellings  raised  by 
private  individuals,  which  line  the  de- 
serted streets  of  the  modern  city,  are  further 
evidence  of  its  former  prosperity. 

In  the  Piazza  del  Duomo  alone,  we  have 
a  group  of  four  important  buildings,  the 
outcome  of  the  religious  enthusiasm  of  the 


History  of  the  Town  207 


citizens,  and  of  the  relations  maintained  by 
the  town  with  the  papal  see. 

The  oldest  building  is  probably  the 
Bishop's  Palace,  behind  the  Cathedral,  on 
the  right.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
in  977,  and  was  certainly  enlarged  and 
restored  by  Adrian  IV.  in  1150.  Almost 
all  traces,  however,  of  the  mediaeval  building 
have  been  removed  by  the  restorations  made 
in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Adjoining,  and  nearer  to  the  piazza,  is 
the  Palace  of  the  Popes,  commonly  called 
the  Palazzo  Soliano,  and  now  used  as  a 
museum. 

It  was  built  in  1297  by  order  of  Boniface 
VIII.  for  the  reception  of  the  pontifical 
ambassadors,  and  was  given  by  the  com- 
mune to  the  Opera  del  Duomo  in  1534. 

Close  beside  it  is  the  Hospital  established 
for  the  poor  in  1197  by  a  priest;  and  facing 
the  Duomo  stands  an  imposing  building, 
the  Palace  of  the  Opera  del  Duomo,  built 
in  1359- 

It  is  astonishing  to  find  so  many  splendid 
erections  in  a  small  hill  city,  but  both 
municipal  and  private  palaces  sink  into 


2o8      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

insignificance  beside  the  magnitude  of  the 
work  of  the  Duomo.  This  cathedral  church 
owes  its  existence  to  an  outburst  of  popular 
piety  and  enthusiasm  aroused  by  the  miracle 
of  Bolsena.  The  first  stone  was  laid  by 
Nicholas  IV.  in  1290,  and  the  citizens, 
imposing  a  tax  upon  themselves  to  defray 
the  cost,  joined  with  the  dwellers  in  the 
suburbs  and  surrounding  districts,  in  long- 
continued  efforts  to  bring  the  great  work 
to  completion. 

Another  centre  of  the  ancient  mtmicipal 
life  is  to  be  found  in  the  now  desolate  Piazza 
del  Popolo,  or  Mercato,  which  lies  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Corso. 

The  massive  and  imposing  Palazzo  del 
Capitano,  or  del  Popolo,  one  of  the  oldest 
municipal  buildings  of  the  middle  ages,  is  said 
to  have  been  erected  by  Adrian  IV.  in  11 56 
and  restored  in  1255.  The  upper  story  has 
six  beautiful  windows,  and  the  entrance  is 
reached  by  a  fine  flight  of  stairs  leading  from 
the  piazza. 

Another  large  but  tinfinished  municipal 
building  is  the  Palazzo  Comunale,  in  the 
Piazza  Vittorio  Emmanuele,  erected  in  the 


History  of  the  Town  209 


beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
now  vised  as  the  Miinicipio.  The  Renais- 
sance fagade  was  added  in  1524.  Such  are 
some  of  the  evidences  that  still  remain  of 
the  prosperity  and  vigorous  life  to  be  found 
in  Orvieto  in  the  thirteenth  century.  With 
the  coming  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VII.  into 
Italy  in  131 1,  the  hopes  of  the  Ghibelline 
party  were  revived,  and  the  -Filippeschi 
made  an  attempt  to  deliver  Orvieto  into  the 
hands  of  the  imperial  forces.  The  plot  was 
discovered,  and  for  three  days  during  the 
month  of  August,  13 12,  the  opposing  factions 
of  the  citizens  fought  in  the  streets.  No 
less  than  four  htindred  of  the  party  of  the 
Filippeschi  were  killed,  and  the  remnant 
were  driven  out  of  the  city.  Three  htmdred 
of  the  palaces,  houses,  and  towers  in  the 
Via  di  Pusterla,  belonging  to  the  conquered 
faction,  were  burned  to  the  groimd  and 
have  never  been  rebuilt. 

The  family  of  the  Monaldeschi,  thus  left 
without  a  rival,  increased  in  power,  and  with- 
in the  space  of  twenty  years  the  various  mem- 
bers of  this  family  had  the  supreme  control 
of  the  government  entirely  in  their  hands. 


2IO      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

Their  power,  however,  received  a  serious 
check  from  the  factions  which  arose  among 
the  different  branches  of  the  family.  These 
branches  were  distinguished  from  one  an- 
other by  the  names  of  the     Stag/'  the 

Viper,"  and  the  Dog,*'  and  the  peace 
of  the  town  was  continually  disturbed 
by  their  disorders.  The  population  declined 
rapidly  under  the  effects  of  civil  war  and 
bad  government.  It  is  stated  that  in  1380 
there  were  three  thousand  families  living 
within  the  walls,  and  in  the  space  of  seven- 
teen years  there  were  less  than  a  third  of 
that  number,  while  in  1424  the  population 
coimted  only  two  hundred  households.  It 
is  easy  to  tmderstand  how  this  state  of 
things  was  brought  about  when  we  read 
that  Berardo  Monaldeschi  in  1386,  with  the 
help  of  a  company  of  Breton  mercenaries, 
attacked  a  certain  quarter  of  the  town  and 
put  to  death  three  thousand  people. 

In  1345  there  was  a  brief  interregnum  in 
the  rule  of  the  Monaldeschi,  due  to  the 
conquest  of  the  city  by  the  papal  legate, 
Cardinal  Albornoz.  This  able  and  warlike 
prelate  succeeded  in  making  peace  among 


History  of  the  Town  211 


the  citizens.  He  re-established  the  Studio 
Generale,  a  school  which  had  existed  since 
1013,  but  had  been  suppressed  by  the 
Monaldeschi.  The  cardinal  also  rebuilt  the 
Fortress  of  La  Rocca,  at  the  northeast 
entrance  of  the  town.  The  work,  however, 
was  interrupted  by  the  death  of  the  legate 
in  1367,  and  the  new  construction  was 
rapidly  pulled  down  by  the  opponents  of 
the  papal  party.  The  site  is  now  converted 
into  a  public  garden,  and  commands  a  fine 
view  of  the  valley  of  the  Tiber. 

During  the  next  half  century  the  govern- 
ment of  the  city  imderwent  many  trans- 
formations. Under  the  pontificates  of  Boni- 
face IX.  (1389-1404)  and  Gregory  XII. 
(1406-1417),  Orvieto  was  ruled  by  papal 
legates.  In  141 4  it  was  conquered  by  King 
Ladislaus  of  Naples,  and  fell  under  the  rule 
of  the  military  captain,  Sforza.  It  was 
restored  to  the  Church  by  the  Perugian 
condottiere,  Braccio,  but  was  once  more 
mastered  by  the  Viper  branch  of  the 
Monaldeschi  in  1437.  Finally  the  exhausted 
city,  emptied  of  inhabitants  through  the 
continual  warfare  and  succeeding  pestilences, 


212      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

was  reduced  in  1460  to  the  absolute  dominion 
of  the  Pope.  Since  then  Orvieto  has  ceased 
to  have  any  history  of  importance,  and 
became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  i860. 


CHAPTER  II 

ETRUSCAN  ORVIETO  —  THE  NECROPOLIS 

THE  Etruscan  necropolis,  on  the  north- 
western slopes  outside  of  the  gates, 
may  be  reached  on  foot  from  the  Porta 
Maggiore,  or  by  carriage  from  the  Porta 
Cassia  on  the  road  leading  to  the  railway 
station. 

By  the  carriage  route  we  reach  first  the 
tombs  discovered  in  1874,  which  are  tinder 
the  care  of  a  painstaking  and  intelligent 
custodian,  who  was  present  during  the  first 
excavations. 

The  situation  is  very  beautiful,  with  cliffs 
rising  steeply  behind,  and  the  wide  stretch 
of  the  valley  of  the  Paglia  in  front. 

These  sepulchres  are  only  a  small  portion 
of  a  vast  cemetery  lying  at  the  foot  of  the 
cliffs,  and  encircling  the  entire  hill,  a  veritable 
city  of  tombs,  to  which  the  dead  were  brought 

213 


214      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

from  the  houses  of  the  living  in  the  town 
above.  Here  dwellings  of  stone  were  built 
for  the  spirits.  Shrines  were  raised  in  the 
midst  of  the  dead,  and  offerings  made  to 
those  deities  who  presided  over  fertility  and 
generation. 

The  tombs  are  of  an  early  date,  probably 
before  the  sixth  century  B.C.  They  are  not 
caves  hollowed  out  of  the  rocks,  but  low 
massive  buildings  arranged  side  by  side  and 
back  to  back,  like  houses  in  the  streets  of  a 
town.  They  stand  now,  overgrown  with 
grass  and  wild  flowers,  in  the  midst  of  vine- 
yards and  olive  gardens. 

The  walls,  built  of  large  stones  neatly  laid 
and  without  mortar,  are  about  nine  feet  high. 
The  masonry  of  the  roof  has  been  dressed 
into  the  form  of  a  vault.  The  tall  narrow 
doorways  are  without  any  decoration,  and 
have  simply  the  name  of  the  owner  of  the 
tomb  carved  upon  the  flat  lintel.  There 
are  outer  and  inner  doors,  with  a  small  vesti- 
bule between,  which  may  have  been  used  as 
a  sleeping-place  by  the  relations  when  they 
wished  to  discover  the  will  of  the  dead. 

It  was  part  of  the  belief  of  those  who 


Etruscan  Orvieto — ^^  The  Necropolis  215 

practised  the  cult  of  the  grave  that  the  dead 
could  exert  their  influence  upon  any  one 
sleeping  near  their  abode,  and  could  reveal 
to  them  in  dreams  future  events,  or  even 
remedies  against  sickness.  There  was  a 
constant  desire  also  to  propitiate  the  spirits, 
and  in  early  times  among  the  Greeks,  slaves 
were  sacrificed  at  ftmerals  in  order  that  the 
dead  might  be  provided  with  attendants 
in  the  world  beyond. 

These  blocks  of  tombs  at  Orvieto  have  at 
each  corner  a  small  chamber,  in  which 
skeletons,  both  male  and  female,  were 
discovered.  It  is  supposed  that  these  are 
the  remains  of  servants  and  dependants. 

A  cippus  of  stone,  generally  in  the  shape 
of  a  pine  cone,  and  supposed  to  have  a 
phallic  significance,  was  placed  upon  the 
roof.  Inside  the  tombs  the  chamber  beyond 
the  second  pair  of  doors  is  furnished  for  the 
most  part  with  stone  benches,  upon  which 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  laid.  There 
are  never  more  than  three  benches,  nor  less 
than  two.  A  large  number  of  vases  of 
Bucchero,  and  some  painted  Grecian  vases 
pf  archaic  style,  were  found  when  the  tombs 


2i6      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

were  discovered,  as  well  as  some  ornaments 
and  a  few  bronze  weapons.  All  the  contents 
of  these  sepulchres  relate  to  a  period  before 
the  sixth  century  b.  c. 

From  this  necropolis  we  pass  to  the 
adjoining  farm  in  the  direction  of  the  Porta 
Maggiore  to  the  tombs  discovered  in  1896, 
one  of  which  has  been  preserved  exactly  as 
it  was  fotmd.  These  sepulchres  have  been 
buried  probably  for  centuries  under  the 
earth  and  debris  which  has  fallen  upon  them 
from  the  higher  groimd  above,  and  the 
entrance  doors  now  seem  to  lead  into  caves 
cut  out  in  the  hillside.  But  these  tombs 
are,  like  the  rest  of  the  necropolis,  built  of 
slabs  of  masonry,  the  roof  being  formed  of 
converging  blocks.  They  were,  as  a  rule, 
closed  by  two  stone  doors,  the  inner  being 
hermetically  sealed. 

In  one  tomb  we  can  still  see  the  bones  of 
the  two  owners  stretched  upon  the  stone 
beds.  A  gold  ring  has  dropped  from  the 
finger  gone  to  dust,  and  hanging  on  the 
walls  are  a  number  of  cups  and  plates  of 
common  earthenware  and  bronze.  On  the 
floor  beside  the  benches  are  large  vessels 


Etruscan  Orvieto  —  The  Necropolis  217 

for  oil  and  wine.  Some  of  the  small  vases 
on  the  walls  may  have  contained  perfumes 
which  were  supposed  to  ward  off  the  final 
dissolution  of  the  body.  Did  the  relations 
who  placed  the  food  and  the  drink  in  these 
vessels  believe  that  the  shades  dwelt  in  the 
narrow  chamber  and  suffered  htinger  and 
thirst,  or  were  they  following  an  ancient 
burial  custom  which  had  only  a  symbolical 
significance?  However  that  may  have  been, 
we  know  that  they  did  hold  fimeral  feasts, 
and  make  offerings  to  the  dead  at  stated 
periods,  for  outside  of  the  doorways  of  many 
of  these  tombs  quantities  of  the  remains  of 
previous  feasts  were  discovered,  such  as 
cups  and  plates,  bones  of  birds,  fishes,  and 
beasts,  and  many  egg-shells.  As  we  turn 
from  these  vases  and  vessels,  so  much 
like  our  own  familiar  pottery,  and  look  out 
at  the  landscape,  which  can  have  changed 
comparatively  little  in  two  thousand  years, 
we  are  inclined  to  feel  that  our  likenesses 
to  these  far-off  Etruscans  are  perhaps 
greater  than  our  differences. 

Those  who  desire  to  retuLrn  to  the  town 
on  foot  may  be  recommended  to  take  the 


2i8      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

pleasant  path  above  the  necropolis,  which 
leads  under  the  bastions  of  the  cliflfs.  On 
the  way  we  pass  a  little  chapel  with  a  Cruci- 
fixion painted  upon  the  natural  rock  called 
the  Crocefisso  del  Tufo,"  and  enter  the 
town  by  the  Porta  Maggiore. 

Those  who  visit  the  Etruscan  sepulchres 
have  the  good  fortune  to  find  themselves 
led  out  from  the  towns  into  the  surrounding 
fields  and  vineyards,  and  sometimes  farther 
still  into  the  heart  of  the  woodland. 

The  tombs  at  Poggio  Roccolo  will  repay 
the  traveller,  not  only  by  the  intrinsic  interest 
of  their  paintings,  but  by  the  beauty  of  the 
scenery  through  which  he  must  pass.  The 
excursion  by  carriage  occupies  two  or  three 
hours.  The  keys  of  the  tombs  must  be 
obtained  in  Orvieto.  Leaving  the  city  by 
the  Porta  Romana,  we  descend  the  hill  in  a 
southwesterly  direction,  following  the  road 
to  Viterbo.  As  we  climb  the  slopes  on  the 
opposite  side,  passing  the  Campo  Santo,  we 
have  a  clear  view  of  the  hill  city  of  Orvieto, 
with  the  cathedral  and  other  buildings 
massed  sharply  against  the  sky. 

From  this  point  of  view,  the  rocks  and 


Etruscan  Orvieto  —  The  Necropolis  219 

walls  surrounding  the  city  rise  with  striking 
effect  above  the  olives  and  poplars  which 
clothe  the  lower  slopes. 

Beyond  the  Campo  Santo,  the  road  passes 
the  ancient  Convent  of  Santa  Trinita,  which 
contains  two  frescoes  by  Pinturicchio. 

On  the  right  wall  is  the  Madonna  and 
Child,  with  SS.  Joseph  and  Bonaventura  on 
the  left,  and  SS.  John  and  Jerome  on  the 
right.  Angels  hold  a  crown  over  the  head  of 
Mary.  Round  the  picture  is  a  circle  of 
cherub  heads,  and  in  the  background  there 
are  traces  of  a  landscape,  but  the  fresco  is 
now  much  damaged. 

On  the  opposite  wall  is  a  figure  of  S. 
Bernardino  of  Siena,  with  four  other  saints. 

S.  Bernardino  carries  a  scroll  with  the 
words,  Manifestavi  nominem  tuum  homini- 
bus,''  recalling  the  special  mission  of  the 
saint  to  preach  the  Kingdom  of  Christ.  He 
tried  to  persuade  his  hearers  everywhere  to 
take  down  their  own  ensigns,  public  and 
private,  and  put  up  in  their  place  the  mono- 
gram of  Jesus. 

On  the  right  are  St.  Anthony  of  Padua 
and  St.  Peter;  on  the  left  St.  Louis  of  Tou- 


220      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

louse  and  St.  Paul.  An  angel  holds  a  crown 
over  the  head  of  S.  Bernardino,  and  the 
figures  are  encircled  by  cherub  heads.  There 
is  a  pleasant  landscape,  and  the  whole  forms 
a  quiet,  solemn  picture  with  a  touch  of 
Umbrian  sentiment. 

The  picturesque  cloisters  are  decorated 
with  inferior  frescoes. 

Shortly  afterwards  the  road  ascends  more 
steeply,  and  we  pass  a  great  fall  of  rocks 
called  Sasso  Tagliato,''  where  it  is  said  a 
way  was  miraculously  opened.  Higher  up 
the  hill,  are  the  gates  of  the  villa  Buon 
Viaggio,''  where  Pius  IX.  once  paid  a  visit 
during  his  sojourn  at  Orvieto.  The  road 
then  crosses  a  bridge,  known  as  the  Ponte 
Marchese,  with  a  monument  upon  it  to  a 
Gonzaga  cardinal.  Soon  after  this  the 
carriage  must  be  left,  and  we  pass  on  foot 
along  a  grassy  path  through  chestnut  woods 
to  the  entrance  to  the  tombs,  which  were 
discovered  by  Signor  Golini  in  1863.  In 
these  tombs  we  see  evidence  of  the  conflicting 
influences  which  affected  the  Etruscan 
painters. 

On  the  one  hand  they  were  powerfully 


o 

H 

> 
O 

El, 
O 

> 

< 


Etruscan  Orvieto  —  The  Necropolis  221 

influenced  by  Greek  art,  which  reached 
them  through  the  medium  of  the  painted 
vases  imported  into  Etruria  in  large  num- 
bers. They  took  their  conceptions  from  the 
Greeks,  and  copied  the  idealized  forms  of 
the  Hellenic  artists. 

On  the  other  hand  they  were  strongly 
drawn  by  their  own  natural  tendency  towards 
realism,  and  by  their  desire  to  represent 
things  as  they  saw  them,  imrestrained  by 
any  refinements  of  a  cultivated  taste.  These 
paintings  belong  to  the  later  period  of 
Etruscan  art.  Those  of  the  second  tomb 
date,  it  is  supposed,  from  about  the  year 
400  B.C.  The  system  of  colouring  is  not 
conventional,  as  in  more  archaic  work;  the 
faces  are  individualized  by  different  expres- 
sions, and  there  is  a  good  deal  of  life 
and  movement  in  the  figures  of  the 
animals. 

These  paintings  are,  however,  only  medi- 
ocre works  of  art,  and  their  chief  claim  upon 
our  interest  is  the  life-like  picture  which 
they  give  us  of  the  Etruscan  people,  of  the 
customs  and  habits  of  a  great  civilization. 
We  see  them  at  their  feasts,  at  their  fimerals, 


222      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

at  their  sports,  with  every  detail  of  costume 
minutely  depicted.  The  first  tomb,  which 
is  the  less  well  preserved  of  the  two,  is  known 
as  the  Tomba  delle  Due  Bighe/'  the  tomb 
of  the  two  chariots. 

On  entering  the  chamber,  we  see  a  great 
stone  sarcophagus  with  its  lid  removed 
standing  against  the  wall  opposite  to  the 
entrance.  Inside  it  there  are  several  cups 
and  vessels  and  the  remains  of  a  skeleton. 

The  roof  is  cut  out  of  the  natural  rock  in 
imitation  of  masonry,  and  a  low  bench  runs 
rovind  the  room. 

The  paintings,  which  are  much  damaged, 
represent  the  feasts  and  sports  held  at  the 
funeral  in  honour  of  the  dead.  There  is  the 
same  incongruous  mixture  of  gloomy  and 
joyful  images,  of  hideous  demons  and  gaily 
dressed  revellers,  as  we  find  on  the  cinerary 
chests. 

Above  the  entrance  door  there  are  two 
long  striped  serpents,  emblems  of  the  tinder- 
world,  perhaps  regarded  as  protectors  of  the 
tomb.  A  similar  pair  are  painted  upon  the 
opposite  wall,  and  a  few  traces  remain  upon 
the  doorposts,  of  what  were  once  the  figures 


Etruscan  Orvieto  —  The  Necropolis  223 

of  brutal-looking  demons,  the  Charuns,  or 
messengers  of  death. 

The  scenes  on  the  side  walls,  on  the  other 
hand,  show  us  people  in  the  midst  of  the 
pleasures  of  this  world,  feasting  and  playing, 
to  all  appearance  absolutely  imconscious  of 
their  surroimdings. 

On  the  wall  of  entrance,  to  the  right  and 
left,  are  fragments  of  chariots  drawn  by  two 
horses,  probably  intended  to  represent  the 
races  and  games  held  at  the  ftmeral.  In 
some  of  the  painted  tombs  we  shall  see  that 
the  soul  is  represented  as  journeying  to  the 
underworld  in  a  horse-chariot.  Such  repre- 
sentations are  easily  distinguished  from  the 
funeral  sports  by  the  presence  of  the  genii 
who  accompany  the  spirit  on  its  migration. 
Here  in  this  tomb  everything  indicates  that 
the  people  are  on  this  earth  and  of  the 
earth. 

The  banquet  is  painted  upon  the  right 
wall.  Little  can  now  be  seen  except  the 
lower  part  of  the  couches,  with  a  pair  of 
pigeons  seated  upon  the  footstools;  and  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  picture  are  some  of  the 
heads  of  the  revellers.    Two  of  these  are 


224      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

yotmg  men  with  handsome  faces  of  Greek 
type,  wearing  white  mantles  and  crowns  of 
leaves  upon  their  heads.  The  names  are 
inscribed  upon  the  walls  beside  the  ban- 
queters, who  seem  to  be  in  eager  conver- 
sation. On  the  opposite  wall  are  fragments 
showing  that  the  scene  of  the  feast  was 
continued  rotmd  the  chamber,  and  at  one 
side  the  figures  of  musicians  can  still  be 
traced.  On  the  wall  opposite  to  the  entrance 
were  formerly  representations  of  two  war- 
riors, possibly  the  owners  of  the  tomb. 

The  second  tomb,  which  is  close  at  hand, 
has  well  preserved  and  important  pictures. 
The  chamber  is  divided  by  a  partition, 
which  stands  out  in  the  centre  of  the  room, 
and  is  used  by  the  artist  as  a  line  of  division 
between  the  subjects  represented  upon  either 
side. 

In  the  chamber  on  the  left  hand  we  have 
scenes  of  preparation  for  a  banquet  of  a 
purely  earthly  and  material  nature.  In 
the  chamber  on  the  right  are  pictures  of  the 
shades  partaking  of  unearthly  food  in  the 
presence  of  the  rulers  of  the  underworld. 

Beginning  with  the  division  on  the  left 


Etruscan  Orvieto  —  The  Necropolis  225 

of  the  entrance  wall,  we  see  in  the  first  place 
the  carcases  of  animals,  an  ox  with  its  head 
severed,  a  kid,  and  a  bird  hting  up  as  in  a 
butcher's  shop,  and  we  are  spared  none  of 
the  ugly  realistic  details.  On  the  adjoining 
wall  a  number  of  busy  servants  prepare  the 
various  dishes  for  the  banquet.  The  first 
figure  is  that  of  a  man  cutting  up  a  piece  of 
meat  on  a  table ;  next  to  him  is  a  woman  in 
a  short  tight  tunic,  superintending  the  ar- 
rangement of  various  articles  of  food,  among 
which  fruits  and  eggs  are  conspicuous.  These 
provisions  were  used  especially  at  the  funeral 
feasts,  probably  because  of  the  symbolical 
meaning  attached  to  them.  Grapes  were 
sacred  to  Dionysos,  who  presided,  not  only 
over  the  new  growth  of  spring  upon  the 
earth,  but  over  the  quickening  of  the  seeds 
hidden  under  the  grotmd  in  winter.  For  the 
same  reason  the  pomegranate,  a  fruit  which 
lays  bare  its  seeds,  was  consecrated  to 
Persephone.  Eggs  were  used  as  an  emblem 
of  second  life  or  resurrection.  There  are 
servants  grouped  about  this  table  with  the 
fruits,  some  carrying  baskets,  others  playing 
upon  a  kind  of  double  pipe,  to  enliven  the 


226      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

labours  of  the  kitchen.  At  the  end  of  the 
wall  is  a  servant  kneading  at  the  three- 
legged  table;  on  the  adjoining  wall  we  find 
the  cook  bending  over  the  furnace,  while 
another  man,  fiirnished  with  a  kind  of 
mallet,  attends  to  the  contents  of  a  large 
vessel. 

On  the  wall  of  the  partition  the  servants 
are  seen  busily  carrying  the  dishes  to  the 
banqueting-hall.  One  man,  who  seems  to 
play  the  part  of  major-domo,  beckons 
authoritatively  to  the  servants  behind.  On 
the  face  of  the  partition  is  a  little  monkey 
tied  to  a  tree,  said  by  some  to  be  a  symbol  of 
the  vanity  of  human  hfe;  but  by  others  it 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  realistic  accessories 
introduced  to  heighten  the  natural  appear- 
ance of  a  company  gathered  together  for  a 
festival. 

The  scenes  on  the  other  side  of  the  par- 
tition represent  the  arrival  of  one  newly 
dead  at  the  banquet  of  the  king  and  queen 
of  the  underworld.  The  paintings  are  either 
by  another  hand,  or  the  artist  has  adopted 
a  more  refined  and  less  reaUstic  style  of 
painting  to  suit  the  change  in  his  subject. 


Etruscan  Orvieto  —  The  Necropolis  227 

Beginning  on  the  wall  of  entrance,  to  the 
right,  we  see  the  figure  of  a  young  man 
standing  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  two  horses. 
Behind  the  horses  runs  a  winged  female 
genius,  or  Lasa,  holding  a  scroll  in  her  hand, 
the  record  of  the  life  of  the  dead  youth.  It 
was  believed  that  the  attendant  genii,  or 
guardian  spirits,  accompanied  human  beings 
through  their  lives,  and  at  death  underwent 
a  transformation  into  snakes  like  the  souls 
themselves.  This  may  account  for  the  pair 
of  knotted  serpents  which  the  Lasa  has 
twisted  round  her  waist. 

The  scene  of  the  feast  to  which  the  new 
arrival  is  hastening  began  on  the  adjoining 
wall,  but  nothing  now  remains  except  a 
fragment  of  a  couch  and  some  heads  with  the 
names  inscribed  beside  them.  The  paintings 
on  the  wall  at  the  end  of  the  chamber  are, 
however,  better  preserved,  and  the  figures 
of  two  men  lying  upon  couches  with  drink- 
ing-cups  in  their  hands  can  be  clearly 
seen. 

A  cloudy  background  is  painted  behind 
the  heads  of  the  men  as  though  to  indicate 
some  celestial  region,  and  at  the  same  time, 


228      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

with  a  curious  mixture  of  ideas,  a  number  of 
candelabra  with  Hghted  candles  are  placed 
beside  the  couches,  and  two  domestic  pets, 
one  like  a  cat  called  Krankru''  and  an 
ape  or  dog  called  Kurpu,''  disport  them- 
selves upon  the  footstools.  Two  musicians 
with  instruments  stand  beside  the  couches. 

The  place  of  honour  on  the  partition  wall 
is  given  to  the  majestic  group  of  the  King 
and  Queen  of  Hades,  sitting  upon  thrones 
side  by  side.  Little  of  the  figures  remain 
except  the  heads,  with  the  words  inscribed 

Etta,''  the  Greek  Aides,  and  Phersipnai,'' 
the  Greek  Persephone  or  Persephoneia.  The 
head  of  the  god  is  covered  with  a  wolf's 
skin,  and  the  goddess,  who  wears  earrings 
and  a  necklace,  has  a  sceptre  crowned  by  the 
figure  of  a  little  blue  bird.  There  is  nothing 
awful  about  the  appearance  of  these  dread 
deities.  Hades,  the  invisible  one,''  and 
Persephone,  the  desolating  slayer,"  are 
here  represented  as  a  comely  and  gracious 
pair,  sharing  with  mortals  in  their  taste  for 
jewels  and  other  ornaments.  Such  figures 
are  no  doubt  a  reflection  of  the  growing 
desire,  with  the  progress   of  the  race,  to 


Etruscan  Orvleto  —  The  Necropolis  229 


present  a  less  gloomy  view  of  the  soul's 
existence  after  death,  and  to  depict  the 
possibility  of  a  blissful  life,  for  some  at  least, 
in  the  world  beyond. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  MUSEUMS 

THE  principal  Etruscan  collections  are 
those  of  the  Museo  Civico,  and  of 
the  Conte  Faina  in  the  Palazzo  Faina.  A 
small  collection  in  the  town,  belonging  to 
Signor  Mancini,  is  also  cotirteously  shown  to 
visitors. 

Part  of  the  municipal  collection  is  still 
preserved  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo,  in  the 
southwestern  corner  of  the  Piazza  del 
Duomo.  On  the  groimd  floor  are  the  follow- 
ing exhibits :  — 

No.  600.  A  column  of  pyramidal  shape 
with  the  words  in  large  Etruscan  letters 
**Tinia,  Tinscvil/'  that  is,  ''Sacred  to 
Tinia,''  the  Etruscan  deity  corresponding 
with  the  Greek  Zeus. 

From  this  inscription  it  is  supposed  that 

230 


The  Museums  231 


this  stone  was  either  an  altar  or,  perhaps 
more  probable,  a  stone  case  for  holding  the 
pole  or  log  of  wood,  the  primitive  symbol  of 
Zeus  among  the  ancient  peoples  of  Italy. 

Stone  cippi,  some  of  which  have  inscrip- 
tions. These  stone  monuments  were  used 
to  mark  the  place  of  sepulchres  and  to 
signify  that  the  earth  was  sacred.  They 
were  placed  on  the  roofs  or  above  the  door- 
ways of  the  tombs,  corresponding  in  number 
to  the  dead  buried  within.  Some  of  the 
cippi  are  to  be  seen  in  their  original  position 
at  the  necropolis  on  the  northern  slopes  of 
the  hill. 

No.  845.  A  stela,  or  sepulchral  monument 
with  a  bas-relief,  probably  representing  the 
dead  person.  This  style  of  monument  is 
rare  in  the  district,  and  is  archaic  in  char- 
acter. 

The  statue  of  a  goddess,  known  as  the 
Venus  of  Cannicella.  This  statue  was  foimd 
in  1884,  in  the  necropolis  tinder  the  cHfifs,  to 
the  south  of  the  city.  Turan,'*  the  Etrus- 
can Venus,  venerated  as  a  manifestation  of 
the  fertile  and  reproductive  forces  of  nature, 
was  probably  worshipped  at  a  shrine  raised 


232      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

in  the  midst  of  the  cemetery.  Some  of  the 
votive  offerings  were  discovered  in  the 
debris,  and  are  now  laid  round  about  the 
statue.  The  figure  of  the  goddess  is  an 
interesting  example  of  the  influences  which 
affected  the  Etruscans  in  the  representation 
of  religious  images.  At  first  purely  Oriental 
forms  were  adopted.  The  deities  were 
often  figured  with  the  heads  of  animals  and 
with  wings.  But  as  the  influence  of  Greek 
civilization  spread,  the  Asiatic  types  were 
replaced  by  more  gracious  and  natural  con- 
ceptions of  the  human  form,  imitated  from 
Hellenic  models. 

The  head  of  this  Venus  is  like  the  archaic 
primitive  goddess  of  the  East,  with  heavy 
features  and  plaits  of  hair  arranged  in  rigid 
parallel  lines.  On  the  other  hand,  the  body 
is  in  a  different  and  much  freer  style,  and 
resembles  the  work  of  the  later  Greek 
sculptors. 

Fragments  of  statues  in  terra-cotta,  the 
decorations  of  an  Etruscan  temple,  dis- 
covered in  the  Via  Cassia.  They  are  num- 
bered 721,  722,  723,  724. 

The  Etruscan  temples  seem  to  have  been 


The  Museums  233 


informed  by  the  same  general  principles  as 
the  Doric  style  of  buildings  in  Greece. 

The  tympanum  of  the  Etruscan  temple, 
however,  unlike  the  Grecian  model,  did  not 
rest  directly  upon  the  pillars,  but  projected 
in  front  of  them  like  a  balcony,  and  was 
therefore  incapable  of  supporting  the  weight 
of  a  group  of  statues  in  solid  stone. 

The  Etruscan  architects  showed  their 
usual  ingenuity  and  their  readiness  to  sacri- 
fice artistic  requirements  to  practical  utility 
by  the  substitution  of  terra-cotta  for  stone, 
and  of  bas-relief  for  sculpture  in  the  roimd. 

The  terra-cotta  figures  in  high  relief  were 
attached  by  nails  to  the  building,  and  when 
covered  with  paint  presented  the  appearance 
of  a  group  of  statuary.  The  fragments  of 
terra-cotta  here  include  masks  and  parts  of 
statues  of  satyrs,  fatms,  and  nymphs,  in- 
dicating perhaps  that  the  Temple  was 
dedicated  to  the  Etruscan  Bacchus  or 
"  Phupluns." 

In  the  same  room  there  is  also  an  Etruscan 
tomb,  which  has  been  brought  from  the 
necropolis  lying  to  the  north  of  the  city. 
It  is  a  good  example  of  the  type  of  tombs 


234      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

built  of  stones  without  cement.  The  chamber 
is  furnished  with  two  stone  benches  upon 
which  the  dead  were  laid.  The  roof  is  formed 
of  blocks  of  stone  so  placed  that  each  one 
projects  beyond  the  other  until  they  meet  at 
the  top.  The  projecting  ends  are  sawn  off, 
and  the  effect  is  that  of  a  roughly  made  vault. 

In  two  of  the  other  rooms  of  the  building 
are  careful  reproductions  of  the  paintings 
in  the  tombs  of  Settecammini  at  Poggio 
Roccolo  near  to  Orvieto,  which  may  be 
studied  with  advantage  both  by  those  who 
intend  to  visit  the  tombs  and  those  who 
cannot  do  so,  as  they  are  interesting  examples 
of  Etruscan  painting.  They  present  to  us  a 
realistic  and  vivid  picture  of  some  of  the 
customs,  habits,  and  costumes  of  this  great 
race  of  people. 

Leaving  the  Opera  del  Duomo  we  cross 
the  piazza  to  the  Palazzo  Soliano,  or  Palazzo 
del  Papa,  where  is  the  collection  of  Etruscan 
pottery  and  bronzes. 

The  pottery  may  be  divided  roughly  into 
three  classes :  — 

I.  The  Bucchero,  or  black  ware,  the 
national  pottery  of  Etruria. 


The  Museums  235 


2.  Painted  vases  of  archaic  style,  with 
black  designs  upon  red. 

3.  Painted  vases  of  more  perfect  style, 
with  red  designs  upon  black. 

A  large  num^ber  of  the  designs  upon  the 
pottery  relate  to  the  myths  in  connection 
with  the  worship  of  Dionysos. 

We  know  that  in  Roman  times  Bacchus 
was  most  renowned  in  places,  such  as  Orvieto, 
where  the  light  volcanic  soil  was  especially 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  vine.  It 
is  possible,  therefore,  that  there  may  have 
been  a  special  cult  of  the  deity  in  this  district 
in  Etruscan  times. 

Upon  the  Bucchero  ware,  and  upon  the 
pottery  of  an  early  date  generally,  the 
symbols  relating  to  Dionysos  are  those  of  a 
primitive  people,  worshippers  of  the  forces 
of  nature.  He  is  conceived  of  as  an  earth- 
god,  and  an  embodiment  of  reproductive 
force,  to  be  expressed  not  in  human  form, 
but  by  the  trunk  of  a  vine,  or  by  some  other 
rude  emblem  of  fertility. 

The  symbols  of  this  god  which  appear 
upon  the  Bucchero  ware  in  this  museum  are 
all  associated  with  the  life  of  the  field  and 


236      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

the  forest.  Such  are  the  panthers  and  Hons, 
beasts  of  the  forests;  the  goats  and  rams, 
emblems  of  the  fertile  fields;  the  scrolls  of 
vine  leaves,  and  clusters  of  fruit,  and  the 
ever  green  ivy. 

On  entering  the  hall  we  find  a  collection 
of  black  Bucchero  ware,  the  national  pottery 
of  the  Etruscans,  in  Cases  I.,  III.,  V.,  VIL, 
and  VIII.  The  black  colour  was  obtained 
by  baking  the  clay  in  a  covered  kiln,  and 
subjecting  it  to  a  thick  black  smoke.  We 
may  trace  the  development  of  this  pottery 
from  various  examples  in  these  cases.  The 
first  attempts  are  rude  in  form  and  of  a  dull 
greyish  colour,  and  these  nondescript  vessels 
gradually  give  place  to  better  formed  speci- 
mens which  are  both  smoother  and  more 
lustrous. 

The  earliest  examples  are  to  be  found  on 
the  upper  shelf  of  Case  VIL,  nearest  to  the 
door.  The  Bucchero  ware  dates  from  the 
end  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  and  the 
Etruscan  artists  seem  to  have  borrowed  the 
designs  of  many  Eastern  nations.  Drinking- 
vessels,  cups,  and  vases  of  various  shapes 
are  ornamented  with  stamped  designs  of 


The  Museums  237 


fantastic  animals  from  Oriental  art.  Veiled 
women's  heads,  with  the  hair  arranged  in 
rigid  lines,  are  noticeable  among  the  animal 
forms.  These  heads  are  believed  to  signify 
the  dwellers  in  the  tmderworld,  and  they 
appear  in  connection  with  several  Dionysiac 
emblems  such  as  btmches  of  grapes,  panthers, 
and  goats.  On  the  second  shelf  of  Case  VII. 
there  is  a  fine  piece  of  Bucchero  ware  with 
the  design  so  familiar  in  Oriental  art  of  two 
animals,  one  on  each  side  of  a  sacred  tree. 

Case  III.  has  some  large  bronze  sacrificial 
vessels  used  for  pouring  the  libation  over  the 
head  of  the  victim.  In  this  same  case  are 
vessels  of  Bucchero  in  fantastic  shapes. 
One  has  a  bearded  head  of  Bacchus  in  front, 
and  ends  in  a  ram's  head,  the  ram  being  one 
of  the  symbols  of  the  god.  A  similar  form 
was  called  Rhyton  "  by  the  Greeks,  and 
was  the  wine  jug  used  by  the  satyrs  and 
other  followers  of  Dionysos. 

Vases  in  the  shape  of  a  bent  leg  also  occur 
in  reference  to  the  second  birth  of  the  wine 
god.  Semele,  whose  likeness  was  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  died  smitten  with  the 
lightning  heat  when  her  son  Dionysos,  the 


238      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

vine,  was  bom.  His  father  Zeus,  figured  by 
the  sky  from  whence  clouds  and  thunder- 
bolts come,  hid  the  child  in  his  thigh  until  he 
should  be  fit  for  this  second  birth. 

In  Cases  V.,  VI.,  X.,  XL,  and  XII.  we 
fiind  examples  of  painted  vases  both  of 
archaic  and  of  later  style.  These  Greek 
vases  have  been  found  by  the  thousand  in 
tombs  of  all  periods  later  than  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  The  greatest 
number  were  importations  from  Greece,  and 
only  a  comparatively  small  number  were 
made  in  Etruria  in  imitation  of  the  Greek 
models.  Such  imitations  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  characteristic  details  in  cos- 
tume, and  by  the  realistic  scenes  of  Inferno, 
with  the  grimacing  demons  and  furies 
peculiar  to  Etruscan  mythology. 

Painted  vases  of  the  archaic  style  with 
black  designs  upon  red.  There  are  a  number 
of  drinking-cups,  principally  of  two  forms, 
the  Kylix,  a  flat  shallow  cup  with  two  hori- 
zontal handles,  and  the  Kantharos,  a  slightly 
deeper  cup  with  handles  rising  above  the 
bowl.  Both  kinds  of  vessels  were  used  in 
the  Dionysiac  festivals.    The  Kantharos  was 


* 


AN  ETRUSCAN  VASli: 


The  Museums  239 


sacred  to  Dionysos,  and  the  Kylix  is  the  cup 
most  frequently  used  by  his  followers. 
Several  of  these  cups  have  enormous  eyes 
painted  upon  them,  in  conjunction  with 
btmches  of  grapes  and  figures  of  satyrs  and 
nymphs.  It  has  been  suggested  that  these 
vessels  were  presents  made  by  the  bride- 
groom, and  that  the  eyes  were  an  allusion 
to  the  xmveiling  of  the  bride. 

In  Case  X.  is  a  large  amphora  with  designs 
in  black,  representing  the  nuptial  procession 
of  Thetis  and  Peleus,  who  are  seated  in  a 
chariot  drawn  by  four  horses,  and  preceded 
by  Dionysos  and  Hermes. 

In  Cases  XI.  and  XII.  there  are  a  few 
examples  of  the  later  style  >  with  red  figures 
upon  a  black  groimd,  dating  from  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century  and  onwards.  They  are 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  drinking-bowls  or  wine 
jugs,  with  the  figures  of  satyrs  and  dancing 
women,  Silenus  on  his  ass,  and  other  subjects 
relating  to  the  worship  of  Dionysos. 

The  Faina  Collection 

A  fine  Etruscan  collection  derived  from 
the  excavations  made  in  the  neighbourhood 


240      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

of  Orvieto  and  at  Chiusi  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
Palazzo  Faina  (opposite  to  the  Duomo), 
open  to  visitors  through  the  courtesy  of  the 
owner,  Conte  Faina. 

In  the  first  hall,  ranged  along  the  floor, 
are  twelve  terra-cotta  cinerary  chests  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  Chiusi,  with  sculptured 
figures  upon  the  lids  and  reliefs  upon  the 
sides  of  the  chests.  The  sculptures  upon  the 
lids  are  reaHstic  portraits  of  the  dead  repre- 
sented in  the  midst  of  the  enjoyment  of  life, 
eating,  drinking,  talking,  or  playing  with 
their  ornaments.  The  subjects  of  the  reliefs 
below  are  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  serenely 
contented  men  and  women  on  the  lids. 
They  illustrate,  as  a  rule,  some  tragic  scene 
of  combat,  slaughter,  murder,  or  sacrifice. 
The  fate  of  mortals  is  shown  to  be  in  the 
hands  of  the  gods,  who  make  use  of  death 
as  a  ptmishment  for  impiety  or  presump- 
tion. 

No.  3  has  a  sleeping  figure  upon  the  lid, 
and  on  the  side  of  the  chest  is  a  drinking 
vessel,  or  Kantharos,  sacred  to  Dionysos; 
on  either  side  of  it  is  a  dolphin.  The  dolphin 
is  probably  here  as  an  emblem  of  the  pro- 


The  Museums  241 


ductive  force  of  the  sea,  and  hence  its 
connection  with  Dionysos. 

No.  4  has  on  the  Hd  the  figure  of  a  beautiful 
woman  resting  gracefully  upon  her  left  elbow, 
which  is  supported  by  a  pillow.  The  relief 
upon  the  chest  represents  a  marine  deity, 
figured  as  a  woman  down  to  the  waist,  and 
ending  in  twisted  serpent  tails.  Figures  of 
marine  deities  are  common  among  the  Etrus- 
cans, whose  wealth  depended  greatly  upon 
their  maritime  commerce.  These  figures  do 
not  correspond  closely  with  any  of  the 
creations  of  Greek  mythology.  They  gener- 
ally appear  in  combat  with  men,  or  threaten- 
ing them  with  disaster,  and  seem  to  imply 
the  terrors  and  dangers  which  await  those 
who  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships. 

No.  12.  The  recumbent  statue  of  a  man 
has  a  saucer-shaped  bowl  in  his  hand, 
resembling  the  Roman  Patera.''  In  place 
of  a  handle  this  drinking- vessel  has  a  hollow- 
raised  boss  in  the  centre,  into  which  the 
fingers  could  be  inserted.  The  relief  on  the 
chest  represents  two  warriors  attacked  by 
a  half-clothed  figure  armed  with  a  plough. 
This  may  represent  the  mysterious  plough- 


242      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

man  who  appeared  suddenly  in  the  battle  of 
Marathon  and  assisted  the  Greeks  by  killing 
many  of  the  barbarians  with  his  implement. 

Several  of  the  bas-reliefs  on  the  smaller 
urns  with  sleeping  figures  upon  the  lids  have 
the  same  subject.  They  are  identical,  and 
to  all  appearance  have  been  cast  from  the 
same  mould.  Chests  of  this  kind  were 
probably  kept  in  stock,  and  the  lids  with 
portraits  of  the  dead  were  done  on  com- 
mission. 

The  bas-relief  of  No.  ii  represents  the 
fratricidal  combat  between  Eteokles  and 
Polyneikes,  the  joint  rulers  of  Thebes.  This 
relief  is  a  good  example  of  the  Etruscan 
treatment  of  a  Greek  theme.  The  dire 
result  of  the  conflict,  and  the  certain  end 
in  store  for  the  brothers,  is  signified  by  the 
introduction  of  a  fury,  or  Lasa,  the  mes- 
senger of  death,  who  stretches  her  arms 
towards  the  unhappy  pair. 

No.  14  has  a  touching  and  simple  scene  of 
farewell  between  the  living  and  the  dead. 
Two  persons  stand  before  a  door  with  their 
hands  clasped,  and  beside  each  one  is  a 
fury  holding  a  torch. 


The  Museums 


On  the  floor  to  the  right  of  the  entrance 
are  a  number  of  the  strange  cinerary  vases 
called  canopi,''  with  lids  in  the  shape  of 
human  heads.  They  are  fotmd  most  com- 
monly in  the  neighbotirhood  of  Chiusi,  and 
date  from  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries 
B.  c.  They  are  interesting  links  in  the  history 
of  the  development  of  the  art  of  sculpture 
in  the  rotmd,  among  the  Etruscans.  It  is 
evident  that  sincere  efforts  were  made  to 
secure  a  likeness  in  the  rudely  shaped  head; 
in  order  to  increase  the  human  resemblance, 
these  canopi  are  often  placed  upon  a  seat  of 
bronze  or  stone,  and  roughly  formed  arms 
ornamented  with  rings  and  bracelets  are 
attached  by  means  of  pegs  to  the  sides  of 
the  vase. 

The  next  image  shows  a  still  further 
advance  in  the  power  of  representation. 
Here  we  have  the  roughly  blocked-out  figure 
of  a  man.  The  head  is  movable,  and  the 
hollow  body  was  used  as  a  receptacle  for 
the  ashes.  The  gradual  development  of 
sculpture  from  the  rude  human-headed  vase 
to  the  full-sized  recumbent  figure  upon  the 
lid  of  the  sarcophagus  or  chest  is  fully 


244      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

illustrated  in  the  museum  of  Chiusi.  On 
the  shelves  against  the  walls  are  a  number 
of  pieces  of  black  Bucchero  ware,  some  of 
which,  noticeable  for  the  high  polish  and 
lustrous  finish,  came  from  Castel  Giorgio, 
two  miles  from  Orvieto  on  the  Viterbo  road. 

Two  shallow  bowls  or  Patera  should  be 
noticed,  Nos.  495  and  439.  On  the  shelf 
to  the  right  of  the  entrance  are  a  number  of 
terra-cotta  masks.  Four  are  of  women's 
faces  of  a  somewhat  idealized  type,  and  may 
represent  the  attendant  invisible  spirits, 
genii  or  furies,  or  they  may  be  personifica- 
tions of  Death. 

Nos.  380  and  381  are  two  masks  of  hideous 
demons  with  large  noses,  long  tusks,  and 
horns  on  their  heads.  They  can  be  easily 
identified  from  the  painted  vases  as  the 
Etruscan  Charun,  the  messenger  of  Death, 
who  strikes  down  his  victims  with  his  mallet. 

On  these  shelves  there  are  also  a  number 
of  small  objects  of  various  forms  and  different 
materials,  votive  offerings  to  the  gods  who 
have  the  destiny  of  mortals  in  their  keeping. 
These  rudely  formed  images  of  bulls,  deer, 
pigs,  mothers  suckling  their  babes,  apples^ 


The  Museums 


245 


plums,  etc.,  were  oflfered  to  the  powers  who 
presided  over  the  reproductive  forces  of  Ufe. 
The  small  terra-cotta  figures  of  men  on 
horseback,  and  of  chariots  drawn  by  horses, 
which  look  so  like  cheap  playthings,  repre- 
sented the  mysterious  journey  of  the  soul 
to  the  tmderworld. 

Several  of  the  drinking-cups  have  illus- 
trations of  the  rites  connected  with  the 
Dionysiac  worship,  and  the  shelves  also 
contain  some  phallic  emblems,  which  were 
probably  worn  as  amulets. 

Room  II.  has  a  collection  of  consular  and 
imperial  coins. 

In  Room  III.  are  the  bronzes.  Case  A,, 
on  the  wall  right  of  entrance,  contains  a 
number  of  objects  much  restored. 

On  the  top  shelf  of  Case  B  are  several  flesh 
hooks,  with  six  or  eight  long  prongs,  some- 
times curved  and  sometimes  straight.  They 
were  probably  used  in  the  sacrifices  for 
taking  up  or  turning  the  burnt  flesh,  or 
possibly  for  raking  together  the  ashes  of  the 
dead  on  the  funeral  pyre. 

In  the  same  case  are  several  good  examples 
of  the  graceful  candelabra,  for  which  the 


246      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Etruscan  bronze  -  workers  were  famed 
throughout  ancient  Europe. 

In  Case  C,  on  the  upper  shelf,  are  three 
well-preserved  helmets,  one  of  iron;  also  a 
number  of  axe-heads,  lances,  and  spears. 
On  the  lower  shelves  are  bronze  amulets 
and  idols,  for  the  most  part  obtained  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  Perugia  and  Bettona. 

These  small  bronze  figures  were  used  for 
various  purposes.  Some  were  portable  idols, 
carried  about  by  the  worshippers;  others 
were  votive  offerings  made  at  the  shrines  of 
certain  deities  whose  protection  and  favour 
were  sought.  Certain  of  the  statuettes  were 
attached  to  the  bronze  candelabra  or  braziers 
or  other  articles  of  sepulchral  furniture. 
The  exaggerated  length  of  limb  in  several  of 
these  figures  is  an  indication  of  the  thoroughly- 
practical  character  of  these  people,  and  of 
their  inclination  to  place  utility  before 
beauty.  Vows  were  no  doubt  made  of 
offerings  of  a  given  size,  and  these  attenuated 
figures  fulfilled  the  requirements  of  height 
at  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  work- 
manship and  material. 

In  Case  E,  immediately  above  the  entrance 


The  Museums  247 


door,  is  a  bronze  brazier  with  the  figtires  of 
Hippocampi  at  the  corners.  This  vessel  is 
provided  with  feet  on  wheels,  and  was 
probably  dragged  through  the  tombs  for 
the  ptirpose  of  fumigation  during  the  ftmeral 
feast.  The  Hippocampus  is  the  animal  most 
frequently  represented  as  the  bearer  of  the 
soul  to  the  tmder world. 

Case  D  has  a  miscellaneous  collection  of 
vases,  strigils,  bracelets,  rings,  pins,  and 
mirrors.  These  mirrors  are  polished  on  one 
side  for  reflection,  and  engraved  for  orna- 
ment upon  the  other.  It  is  significant  of 
the  changes  which  took  place  in  the  habits, 
and  probably  in  the  character  of  the  race, 
that  no  mirrors  have  been  found  in  tombs 
earlier  than  the  third  century  b.c,  and  that 
after  that  period  they  became  very  abundant. 
In  a  cave  tomb  near  Orvieto,  which  had 
been  used  as  a  place  of  burial  from  240  to 
217  B.C.,  there  were  found  no  less  than 
eleven  mirrors.  The  subjects  upon  them  are 
as  a  rule  mythological,  but  they  never 
represent  scenes  of  combat  or  death,  and 
the  attendant  spirits  who  appear  are  of  a 
different  order  from  the  hideous  demons 


248      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

introduced  in  the  sepulchral  paintings  and 
sculptures.  The  favourite  deities  figured  on 
the  mirrors,  are  Turan  (or  Venus),  Phupluns 
(or  Bacchus),  Adonis,  and  Apollo,  and  the 
scenes  chosen  relate,  as  a  rule,  to  the  meeting 
of  lovers,  the  tritimph  of  beauty,  and  the 
exploits  of  heroes. 

Case  G  contains  a  number  of  flints  in  the 
shape  of  spears,  arrows,  and  the  like,  found 
near  Perugia  and  Orvieto.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  Etruscans  attached  a  superstitious 
value  to  these  stones,  and  wore  them  as 
amulets. 

On  the  second  and  third  shelves  are  neck- 
laces, combs,  and  small  glass  bottles  prob- 
ably of  foreign  workmanship,  imported  into 
Etruriaby  the  Phoenicians.  In  the  case  in  the 
centre  of  the  room  are  a  number  of  gold  orna- 
ments dating  from  the  fourth  century  b.c. 

Room  IV.  has  a  number  of  vases  chiefly 
in  the  shape  of  a  drinking- cup  called  by  the 
Greeks  Kylix,  in  archaic  style  with  black 
designs  upon  a  red  ground.  This  style 
belongs  to  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  b.c. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  examples  were 
probably  imported  from  Greece. 


The  Museums  249 


Room  V.  has  an  important  collection  of 
Bucchero  ware,  illustrating  the  gradual  de- 
velopment of  the  industry  from  the  primitive 
coarse  vases  of  blackish  grey  colour  up  to 
the  lustrous  well-formed  pottery  of  later  date. 

Room  VI.  contains  painted  vases.  The 
large  majority  of  these  vases  are  probably 
Greek  importations,  but  several  are  obviously 
of  Etruscan  workmanship  from  the  fashion 
in  which  grotesque  and  realistic  details  are 
added  to  the  usual  Hellenic  conceptions  of 
the  scene. 

Three  of  the  vases,  Nos.  19,  20,  21,  on  the 
shelf  to  the  left  of  the  entrance,  are  interest- 
ing illustrations  of  the  Etruscan  represen- 
tations of  the  after-life  of  the  spirit.  The 
technical  qualities  of  the  vases  are  mediocre, 
and  the  style  of  the  design  poor.  They  are 
motmted  upon  a  revolving  stand,  so  that  the 
whole  of  the  figures  can  be  inspected. 

No.  19.  Here  is  represented  the  place  of 
the  shades,  the  region  of  darkness  and 
terror,  guarded  by  the  three-headed  Cerberus 
with  a  serpent  tail.  The  unhappy  victim  of 
death,  represented  as  an  old  man,  stands 
between  two  brutal  figures,  Chartms,  one  of 


250      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

whom  is  armed  with  a  hammer,  and  two 
great  serpents  raise  their  heads  close  beside 
him.  Turning  the  vase,  we  see  the  chariot 
of  the  King  and  Queen  of  Hades,  drawn  by 
two  dragons,  and  this  in  turn  is  followed  by 
a  fury,  or  some  personification  of  death,  a 
naked,  winged  woman  holding  a  scroll  with 
the  word  "  Vanth,"  death. 

No.  21  is  almost  identical  with  No.  19, 

No.  20  represents  a  funeral  car  drawn  by 
two  mules,  bearing  the  body  to  the  sepulchre. 
This  is  followed  by  a  scene  from  the  under- 
world to  which  the  spirit  of  the  dead  has 
migrated.  The  King  of  Hades  appears  in 
his  chariot,  preceded  by  a  figure  of  Charun, 
and  followed  by  a  personification  of  Death 
holding  a  closed  book,  significant  of  the  life 
that  has  ended. 

The  mediaeval  collection  is  in  the  large  hall 
of  the  Palazzo  Soliano. 

Under  the  second  window,  on  the  right  of 
the  entrance,  is  a  fine  piece  of  carving  of 
Italo-Byzantine  workmanship.  Peacocks  and 
other  birds  eating  grapes  are  enclosed  by 
an  interlacing  scroll.  The  slab  is  said  to 
date  from  the  eighth  century,  and  originally 


The  Museums  251 


formed  part  of  an  altar  screen  in  the  Monas- 
tery of  La  Badia,  outside  of  the  town. 

Against  the  wall  are  a  number  of  pieces  of 
the  old  choir  stalls  from  the  Duomo,  and  a 
large  chorale  with  figures  of  the  Apostles  in 
intarsiatura.  These  are  the  work  of  Tura 
dell  Ammanato  of  Siena  and  of  Giovanni 
Talini,  and  are  dated  1333. 

Between  the  second  and  third  windows 
to  the  right  are  a  number  of  pictures. 

No.  38,  a  Crucifixion,  attributed  to  Mar- 
garitone  of  Arezzo  (1236-1313?),  represents 
a  painfully  contorted  figure. 

No.  16  is  a  small  easel  picture  of  the 
Crucifixion,  by  Spinello  Aretino  (1333?- 
1410),  with  a  gilt  background. 

No.  59  is  by  Simone  Martini  (i285?-i344), 
a  Madonna  and  Child  under  a  trefoil  arch. 
Above  Mary's  head  are  the  symbols  of  the 
Alpha  and  Omega,  and  on  either  side  are 
angels  with  sceptres  and  orbs  inscribed 
"  Troni.'' 

No.  64  is  also  by  Simone  Martini.  This 
picture,  known  as  the  **  Trasimimdo  Ma- 
donna/' was  painted  for  Trasimundo,  the 
Bishop  of  Savona,  who  is  represented  kneel- 


252      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

ing  at  the  left  corner  of  the  picture.  The 
four  saints  are  St.  Dominic  and  the  Magda- 
lene, in  the  upper  compartments;  St.  Paul 
and  St.  Peter  below. 

No.  40.  A  small  picture  by  a  follower 
of  Giotto.  Madonna  is  seated  in  the  centre 
with  the  Child;  on  the  left  are  St.  Agnes 
and  St.  Paul,  and  on  the  right  a  woman 
saint  with  a  blazing  vase,  and  St.  Peter. 

Hanging  on  the  wall  is  a  marble  basin, 
for  a  holy  water  stoup,  by  Desiderio  da 
Settignano  (i  428-1463),  the  most  noted  pupil 
of  Donatello.  The  outside  of  the  basin  is 
carved  with  a  rich  design  of  leaves,  and  in 
the  inside  are  fish,  crabs,  and  other  dwellers 
in  the  sea  in  high  relief. 

A  magnificent  collection  of  vestments  is 
placed  in  the  cases  in  the  middle  of  the  hall. 
One  of  these  cases  contains  a  number  of 
mitres,  in  connection  with  which  it  is  told 
that  the  Bishop  of  Orvieto  was  entitled  to 
wear  five  mitres,  significant  of  the  five 
dioceses  over  which  he  presided. 

In  a  case  on  the  right  side  of  the  hall  is  a 
graceful  censer  attributed  to  Benvenuto 
Cellini  (1500-15  71)  and  a  silver  gilt  pastoral 


The  Museums  253 


staff,  which  belonged  to  Cardinal  Simon celli. 
Notice  also  in  Case  XIV.,  a  quaint  little 
casket  of  the  fourteenth  century,  of  painted 
wood,  interesting  on  accotmt  of  the  subjects 
of  a  romantic  and  chivalrous  character. 
On  the  side  facing  the  window  is  a  Foimtain 
of  Love,  in  the  centre  of  the  world,  // 
Mondo''  and  around  the  fountain  are  gath- 
ered knights  and  ladies.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  casket  are  a  number  of  kings  with 
their  names  inscribed,  amongst  which  can  be 
distinguished  the  kings  of  Portugal,  Aragon, 
France,  Sicily,  England.  In  the  centre  of 
the  hall  are  several  statues  of  the  Pisan 
school  deserving  of  notice. 

Two  wooden  figures  of  the  Angel  Gabriel 
and  of  the  Virgin  were  at  one  time  attributed 
to  Friedrich  of  Freiburg,  but  are  now  ascribed 
to  the  Pisan  school.  Traces  of  colour  show 
that  the  figures  were  once  painted  in  a 
realistic  manner.  A  small  marble  statue  of 
Madonna  and  Child,  by  Nino  Pisano,  re- 
sembles the  work  of  the  grandfather  Niccolo 
rather  than  that  of  the  father  Giovanni.  It 
is  a  pleasant  figure  with  a  simple  and  naive 
expression,  but  it  is  somewhat  spoiled  by  the 


254      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

trifling  device  of  making  the  arms  of  the 
Virgin,  and  the  Child's  head,  movable. 

The  most  notable  object  in  the  centre  of 
the  hall  is,  perhaps,  the  beautiful  reliquary- 
made  to  contain  the  head  of  S.  Savino.  It 
was  made  by  Ugolino  da  Maestro  Vieri  and 
Vivo  da  Siena  (working  in  1337).  This 
graceful  and  beautiful  piece  of  goldsmith's 
work  was  done  by  the  artists  as  a  proof  of 
their  ability  to  tmdertake  the  making  of  the 
reliquary  for  the  Corporale  in  the  Duomo. 

Along  the  walls  of  the  room  are  a  number 
of  large  marble  statues  of  the  Apostles  and 
some  saints,  by  sculptors  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  St.  Sebastian  is  the  work  of  Lo 
Scalza,  and  St.  Matthew  is  attributed  to 
Giovanni  da  Bologna.  For  the  most  part 
they  are  tasteless  productions,  and  have  been 
wisely  removed  to  the  museum  from  the 
nave  of  the  Duomo. 

Under  the  third  window  to  the  left  on 
entering  is  a  small  picture  by  Luca  Signorelli 
(1441-1523),  painted  upon  terra-cotta,  repre- 
senting his  own  portrait  and  that  of  Niccolo 
Franceschi,  the  camerlingo  of  the  Duomo, 
and  dated  1504. 


The  Museums  255 


Close  beside  this  window  is  the  bronze  top 
of  a  candelabrum,  formed  by  four  little 
statuettes  of  the  doctors  of  the  Church. 

Between  the  second  and  third  windows  of 
the  left  wall  is  a  picture  of  the  Magdalene  by 
Luca  SignoreUi,  a  large  heavy  figure,  and 
without  charm  of  colour.  Beside  this  is  a 
heavily  over-painted  panel  of  the  school  of 
Giotto,  representing  the  Virgin  and  Child 
with  saints  Savino  and  Giovenale.  The 
picture  comes  from  the  old  Church  of  S. 
Giovenale. 

On  the  entrance  wall,  close  to  the  door,  are 
some  fine  pieces  of  leather  wall  hangings  of 
the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies. Such  hangings  as  these  were  largely 
used  in  the  decoration  of  Orvietan  palaces. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  DUOMO 

THE  Duomo  of  Orvieto  is  one  of  the 
most  elaborate  examples  of  that  par- 
ticular kind  of  Gothic  architecture  which 
fotmd  favour  for  a  comparatively  short  time 
south  of  the  Alps.  This  style  had  been 
introduced  into  Italy  perhaps  late  in  the 
twelfth  century,  certainly  early  in  the 
thirteenth.  Throughout  this  latter  century 
there  was  a  tendency  to  naturalize  many  of 
the  ideas  that  were  moving  architects  and 
sculptors  north  of  the  Alps. 

Giovanni  Pisano  (died  1320)  had  adopted 
what  may  be  called  the  Italian  Gothic  style 
for  the  fagade  of  the  Duomo  at  Siena,  and 
when  Amolfo  del  Cambio  began  to  build  the 
Duomo  of  Florence  in  the  last  years  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  he  used  the  same  manner. 
In  these  adaptations  there  is  a  lack  of  spon- 

256 


o 

H 

> 

o 

d" 
o 

Q 

W 
K 
E- 


The  Duomo 


257 


taneity  and  freedom.  The  Italian  architect 
employed  the  northern  forms  without  sym- 
pathizing fully  in  the  northern  spirit. 

The  design  at  Orvieto  is  distinctly  formal 
and  flat;  the  architect  was  not  working  at 
his  ease,  he  was  indeed  using  a  style  forced 
on  him  by  the  fashion  of  the  time.  And  yet, 
though  it  is  easy  to  criticize  the  shortcomings 
of  the  building  it  would  be  hard  to  exaggerate 
its  magnificence. 

Most  of  the  mosaics,  it  is  true,  are  modern 
restorations;  but  at  a  sufficient  distance, 
where  the  heavy  forms  and  puerile  attitudes 
are  not  distinguishable,  the  colour  of  these 
pictures  has  a  fine  effect.  No  monument  in 
Italy  can  show  such  a  lovely  blending  of 
marbles  shading  off  into  delicate  yellows  and 
pinks  as  those  which  surround  the  great  door- 
ways and  form  a  setting  for  the  mosaics. 

The  four  piers  which  flank  the  western 
doorways  are  covered  with  reliefs  which  are 
among  the  best  examples  of  Italian  sculpture. 
It  is  characteristic  that  the  work  should  be 
in  bas-relief,  which  can  hardly  be  seen  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  building.  The 
porches  at  Chartres  remind  us  that  the 


258      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

sculptors  north  of  the  Alps  knew  better  hov/ 
to  make  their  work  effective. 

It  has  usually  been  assumed  that  Lorenzo 
Maitani  of  Siena  was  the  first  architect  of 
the  Duomo;  but  if,  as  is  supposed,  Maitani 
was  born  in  1275,  and  the  building  was  begun 
in  1290,  we  must  look  elsewhere. 

So  far  as  the  artistic  record  of  the  time 
goes,  two  men  only  seem  possible,  namely, 
Giovanni  Pisano  who,  according  to  Vasari, 
had  designed  the  fagade  of  the  Duomo  at 
Siena  a  few  years  earlier,  and  Arnolfo  del 
Cambio,  who  began  the  building  of  Sta. 
Maria  del  Fiori  at  Florence  a  few  years  later 
than  the  building  at  Orvieto.  There  is  no 
direct  evidence,  and  we  must  be  content  to 
know  that  the  design  for  Orvieto  followed 
the  lines  of  the  great  Tuscan  architects  of 
the  time,  and  that  certainly  in  13 10,  if  not 
before,  Lorenzo  Maitani  became  architect. 

In  1293  there  is  a  record  of  the  principal 
men  who  were  connected  with  the  work. 
They  were  Ramo  di  Paganello  of  Siena; 
Fra  Guglielmo,  a  pupil  of  Niccolo  Pisano; 
and  Jacomo  di  Cosma  Romana  (of  the  Cos- 
mati  family).   Fra  Bevignate,  who  built  the 


The  Duomo 


259 


aqueduct  at  Perugia,  was  also  there,  and  he 
was  Capo  Operaio  for  some  time  before  1300. 

At  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  Maitani 
in  13 10,  it  is  supposed  that  the  fagade  was 
still  unbuilt,  and  it  is  thought  that  he  altered 
the  plan,  so  that  the  two  sides  were  carried 
up  higher,  and  were  finished  off  with  gables 
in  the  same  way  as  the  central  member  of 
the  design. 

In  1 32 1  Maitani  set  up  a  factory  for 
making  material  for  the  mosaics,  and  there 
are  frequent  entries  in  the  accoimts  for  glass 
from  Venice.  Marble  was  brought  from 
Rome,  from  Carrara,  and  from  Monte  Spec- 
chio,  near  Siena,  and  alabaster  was  obtained 
at  Montalcino. 

When  Lorenzo  Maitani  died  in  1330,  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Niccolo,  who  was 
assisted  b)^  his  brother  Vitale  and  a  certain 
Meo  of  Orvieto.  Andrea  Pisano  v/as  ap- 
pointed Capo  Maestro  in  1347.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Nino,  who  began  to 
build  the  chapel  of  the  Corporate  in  1350  — 
working  on  foundations  that  had  been  laid 
in  the  time  of  Maitani. 

The  round  window  of  the  fagade  is  men- 


26o      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

tioned  as  early  as  1354.  It  was  carried  on 
tinder  Andrea  Orcagna,  who  became  Capo 
Maestro  in  1359.  It  was  not  finished  tin  til 
twenty  years  later. 

In  1397  money  was  left  to  build  the  Capella 
Nuova  or  Capella  di  S.  Brizio.  The  work  was 
begtin  in  1408  and  finished  in  141 9. 

In  145 1  the  design  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
fagade  was  altered  by  Antonio  Federighi. 
The  row  of  niches  above  the  circular  window 
was  added,  thus  raising  the  height  of  the 
central  part  of  the  building. 

The  statues  for  the  niches  round  the 
circular  window  were  not  executed  until  long 
after.  Moschino  (died  1578),  Ippolito  Scalza 
(working  1579),  Raffaello  da  Montelupo,  and 
others  were  concerned  in  the  sculpture 
between  the  years  1555  and  1578. 

The  Fafade 

The  building  of  the  Duomo  was  due  to  a 
desire  to  commemorate  the  miracle  of  Bol- 
sena.  In  it  the  Church  saw  a  divine  recog- 
nition of  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass.  By  this 
manifestation,  the  healing  power  of  the 


FAQADE  OF  THE  DUOMO 


The  Duomo 


261 


Passion  was  confirmed  to  every  man  in  the 
daily  sacrament  of  the  altar.  The  priest 
whose  doubt  was  set  at  rest  at  Bolsena  was 
only  one  among  many  who  in  the  thirteenth 
century  hesitated  to  accept  the  teaching  of 
the  Church,  and  the  desire  was  natural  that 
the  miracle  worked  for  his  benefit  should  be 
made  known  to  the  world. 

The  general  design  of  the  church  is  there- 
fore a  testimony  to  the  mystery  of  the  In- 
carnation and  its  embodiment  in  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Eucharist.  The  dedication  of 
the  church  was  in  the  name  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  It  is  in  the  teaching  of  St.  Bernard, 
the  spiritual  leader  of  the  twelfth  century, 
that  we  realize  the  relation  which  the  Virgin 
had  to  the  religious  feeling  of  the  time. 
Madonna  was  the  royal  way  by  which  men 
could  ascend  to  Christ,  as  by  it  He  descended 
to  mankind.  She  was  the  mediatrix  and 
advocate  between  Christ  and  man.  It  was 
her  abimdant  charity  that  concealed  the 
multitude  of  men's  sins. 

As  the  Incarnation  is  the  central  idea  of 
the  building,  we  find  its  realization  in  the 
Divine  Child  seated  on  His  mother's  knee, 


262      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

placed  in  the  most  conspicuous  point  over 
the  central  doorway  on  the  western  fagade 
On  the  pinnacle  above  this  doorway  there  is 
the  Paschal  Lamb,  the  sacrifice  of  the  Pass- 
over being  a  type  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ. 
In  the  mosaics  we  have  the  detail  of  the  life 
of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Around  the  rose 
window  are  gathered  the  prophets,  apostles, 
and  doctors  of  the  Church  militant.  And  on 
the  four  piers  about  the  western  doors  there 
is  a  history  of  the  world  from  the  time  in 
which  all  things  came  forth  from  God  until 
they  return  to  their  justification  in  Him. 

The  sculpture  and  the  mosaic  over  the 
entire  fagade  may  be  regarded  as  a  mirror 
of  the  tmiverse  in  which  man  may  perceive 
the  true  nature  of  his  being,  and  the  whence 
and  the  whither  of  his  existence. 

The  mosaics  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
fagade  depict  the  life  of  the  Virgin.  The 
picture  over  the  right-hand  western  door 
represents  the  Nativity  of  Madonna.  The 
angel  appears  to  Joachim  and  to  Anna,  and 
at  the  sides  there  stand  the  prophets  Nahum 
and  Isaiah,  wijh  legends  sufficiently  pre- 
served to  enable  us  to  identify  their  words. 


The  Duomo 


263 


The  extract  from  the  prophecy  of  Nahum  is 
contained  in  iii.  17,  When  the  sun  is  arisen 
the  enemies  of  God  flee  away  hke  locusts." 
The  extract  from  Isaiah  is  in  ix.  2,  The 
people  that  walked  in  darkness  have  seen  a 
great  light/' 

In  the  right-hand  gable  there  is  the  Presen- 
tation of  the  Virgin  in  the  Temple.  In  the 
corresponding  gable  to  the  left  is  the  Sposa- 
lizio,  and  over  the  left-hand  door  is  the 
Baptism  of  Christ,  with  the  Anmmcia- 
tion  immediately  above  it.  Over  the  central 
doorway  is  the  Assumption  of  Madonna,  and 
in  the  central  gable  the  Coronation. 

The  wheel  window  has  for  its  centre, 
Christ  with  a  cruciform  nimbus;  the  niches 
at  the  side  are  occupied  by  twelve  prophets, 
and  in  the  niches  above  the  window  are 
twelve  apostles.  In  the  four  corners  are 
the  four  doctors  of  the  Latin  Church;  SS. 
Gregory  and  Jerome  in  the  upper  corners 
and  SS.  Ambrose  and  Augustine  below.  On 
the  four  piers  above  the  doorways  are  the 
four  symbols  of  the  Evangelists.  It  is  a 
realization  of  the  saying  of  St.  Paul,  And 
He  gave  some  apostles,  and  some  prophets, 


264      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

and  some  evangelists,  and  some  pastors 
and  teachers  .  .  .  that  we  henceforth  be 
no  more  children  .  .  .  but  that  speaking 
the  truth  in  love  we  may  grow  up  unto  Him 
in  all  things,  which  is  the  head,  even  Christ/' 

The  Sculpture  on  the  Piers 

We  must  now  consider  the  sculptures 
about  the  western  doorways  of  the  Duomo. 
Whether  they  be  considered  as  works  of 
mediaeval  art  or  as  illustrations  of  the 
mediaeval  mind,  they  are  of  great  impor- 
tance. 

There  is  no  direct  evidence  as  to  the 
authorship  or  date  of  these  sculptures.  There 
is  a  general  agreement  that  they  are  due  to 
followers  of  the  school  founded  by  Niccolo 
Pisano  (i2o6?-i28o),  and  continued  under 
changing  influences  by  Giovanni  Pisano  (died 
1320)  and  Andrea  Pisano  (died  after  1349); 
but  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
whether  the  sculptors  belonged  to  the  com- 
pany who  had  worked  on  the  Duomo  of 
Siena,  or  whether  they  were  Florentines. 
The.  date  is  equally  uncertain.  Some  authori- 


The  Duomo 


ties  place  the  work  as  early  as  1310;  others 
believe  that  part  of  it  is  due  to  the  time  of 
Andrea  Orcagna,  who  was  Capo  Maestro  in 
1 359-1 360.  It  is  evident  that  several  hands 
have  been  at  work,  and  many  years  were 
probably  spent  upon  it.  In  general  effect 
there  is  more  likeness  to  works  of  the  Floren- 
tine school  than  to  any  known  Sienese 
sculpture.  The  style  suggests  a  date  later 
than  that  of  the  panels  on  the  campanile 
at  Florence.  So  far  as  such  uncertain  in- 
dications go,  it  may  perhaps  be  tentatively 
accepted  that  the  work  was  done  about  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  under 
the  influence  of  Andrea  Pisano,  Capo  Maestro 
(1347-1349),  and  Andrea  Orcagna,  Capo  Ma- 
estro (1359-1360). 

These  reliefs  take  their  place  with  the 
fountain  at  Perugia  (1280),  the  reliefs  on  the 
campanile  at  Florence  (after  1334),  and  the 
relief  on  the  tabernacle  of  Or  San  Michele 
(about  1360)  as  among  the  best  of  all  Italian 
sculptures.  It  is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to 
say  that  they  are  the  finest  works  executed 
south  of  the  Alps  since  the  time  of  the  great 
Greek  masters. 


266      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

It  will  be  noticed  that  all  the  monuments 
just  named  (with  some  exception  on  the 
foimtain  at  Perugia)  consist  of  works  in 
more  or  less  low-relief.  This  distinguishes 
them  from  the  sculpture  of  French  artists 
who  were  accustomed  to  work  in  the 
round. 

In  the  Orvietan  reliefs  a  certain  over- 
graciousness  takes  the  place  of  the  strong 
imaginative  quality  of  northern  work.  The 
figure  of  Christ  fails  in  impressiveness ; 
there  is  no  fit  conception  of  the  creative 
power  in  act.  So  filled  is  the  artist  with  the 
grace  and  beauty  of  this  world  that  he  fails  to 
grasp  the  wider  ideal;  he  is  satisfied  to 
represent  the  mystery  of  creation  in  terms 
of  real  life.  If,  on  the  one  hand,  Byzantine 
art  disregards  human  feeling  to  concern 
itself  mainly  with  the  abstract  and  general, 
it  is  equally  true  that  this  Pisan-Florentine 
art  loses  the  power  of  expressing  the  super- 
natural in  its  search  after  the  emotions  of 
ordinary  humanity.  We  feel  the  want  of 
ability  to  express  an  existence  not  limited 
by  human  conditions.  We  are  not  inspired 
with  awe  by  a  presence  aloof  from  and 


The  Duomo 


267 


beyond  oiir  own.  Nor  is  the  expression  of 
the  deeper  passions  of  our  nature  successfully 
mastered.  Such  scenes  as  the  Massacre  of 
the  Innocents  and  the  Despair  of  the  Damned 
are  dealt  with  conventionally. 

But  when  this  is  said  there  is  little  left  to 
criticize.  It  would  be  hard  to  find  anything 
more  graceful  and  picturesque  than  the 
lower  scenes  on  the  first  pier.  There  is 
complete  command  over  form,  either  in  rest 
or  motion.  We  may  notice,  for  instance,  the 
subtle  discrimination  between  the  imani- 
mated  form  of  Adam  and  his  form  when 
lying  asleep,  while  the  graceful  rendering 
of  the  angels  has  just  that  quality  of  dis- 
tinction and  reserve  which  distinguishes  it 
from  the  works  of  the  fifteenth  century 
Renaissance.  There  is  a  variety  of  style 
even  among  these  lower  panels.  Adam  and 
Eve  in  the  garden  in  Nos.  7  and  8  (Plan 
XV.)  show  a  tendency  to  shortness  of 
body,  largeness  of  head  and  heaviness  of 
feature,  which  is  not  found  in  the  Creation 
series,  Nos.  3,  4,  and  5  (Plan  XV.). 

The  use  of  sculpture  in  bas-relief  has  al- 
lowed full  play  to  the  artists'  sense  for  the 


268      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

beauty  of  landscape  and  the  forms  of  vege- 
tation, which  add  so  great  a  charm  to  the 
design. 

The  second  pier  is  considered  the  least 
interesting  as  a  work  of  art.  There  is  an 
easy  command  of  method,  there  is  freedom 
of  pose  and  a  sufficient  sense  of  action,  but 
there  is  a  certain  heaviness  and  want  of 
distinction  and  a  lack  of  vigour  and  feeling. 
The  design  at  the  foot  of  the  pier  w^here  the 
prophets  and  rulers  are  seen,  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  similar  part  of  the  third  pier. 
In  the  latter  there  is  far  more  dramatic 
force;  those  who  hold  their  scrolls  are  in- 
stinct with  life;  the  character  of  the  figures 
is  more  virile  and  of  a  higher  type;  the 
sleeping  patriarch  is  more  dignified.  The 
love  of  landscape  breaks  out  again  in  the 
third  pier,  as  it  does  on  the  first;  the  scene 
is  set  among  trees,  each  one  of  which  is  a 
study;  there  are  olives  and  figs  and  many 
oaks  such  as  those  that  still  add  a  charm  to 
the  hills  and  valleys  of  Central  Italy. 

The  sculpture  of  the  life  of  Christ  is  of 
fine  quality.  We  are  struck  at  once  by  the 
simplicity  and  the  dramatic  feeling  of  most 


The  Duomo 


269 


of  the  scenes.  The  Annunciation,  it  is  true, 
is  somewhat  artificial,  but  of  any  such  fault 
the  Visitation  is  entirely  clear.  There  is  a 
true  balance  between  human  feeling  and  the 
sense  of  the  divine  mystery  which  brings 
the  two  women  together.  The  Nativity 
recalls  a  Byzantine  model,  and  to  this  is 
added  a  certain  human  grace  and  tenderness, 
making  it  as  a  whole  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
representations  in  Italian  art. 

The  Adoration  of  the  Magi  is  only  second 
in  merit  to  the  Nativity.  It  suffers  from 
overcrowding  and  it  verges  on  the  narrative 
style  of  treatment,  and  yet  it  is  a  fine  work, 
worthy  of  the  best  traditions  of  a  great 
school.  The  sculpture  on  the  fourth  pier  is 
less  remarkable  than  the  work  on  the  first 
and  third  piers. 

The  designs  upon  the  four  piers  are  de- 
voted to  the  drama  of  human  salvation 
treated  in  an  elaborate  system  of  type  and 
antitype. 

Each  design  is  pictured  in  the  form  of  a 
tree,  and  the  leading  idea  is  the  opposition 
of  the  expectation  of  the  Prophets,  with 
the  realization  of  the  Gospel. 


270      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


The  First  Pier 

The  ivy  branches  in  which  the  subjects 
are  set  symbolize  everlasting  life.  They  are 
typical  of  the  idea  that  those  who  die  in 
Christ  never  cease  to  live. 

Beginning  with  the  lower  panels,  we  are  at 
once  struck  with  the  fact  that  the  subject  is 
not  historically  treated.  It  is  not  a  sculp- 
tured version  of  the  early  chapters  of 
Genesis;  it  is  an  attempt  to  set  forth  the 
spiritual  significance  of  the  facts,  and  to 
suggest  the  relationship  between  the  Creator 
and  humanity.  The  work  of  the  first  four 
days  appears  in  its  results  only,  nor  is  the 
rest  of  the  seventh  day  represented.  It  is 
only  the  creation  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  days, 
when  fowls,  fishes,  cattle,  creeping  things, 
and  man  were  made,  that  is  shown  to  us  in 
operation. 

PLAN  XV  (p.  275) 

In  No.  I  the  work  of  creation  is  effected 
by  the  Trinity,  represented  by  the  hand  of 
God,  by  the  figure  of  Christ,  and  by  the  dove 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.    The  manifestation  of 


DETAIL  OF  THE  FIRST  PIER 


The  Duomo 


271 


power  by  means  of  the  hand  gives  existence ; 
the  wisdom  of  the  word  gives  the  rational 
nature  by  which  man  becomes  deserving  of 
praise  and  blame;  the  love  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  gives  holiness,  by  which  man  is  capable 
of  receiving  the  righteousness  of  God. 

The  accotint  of  creation  in  Genesis  was 
regarded  as  a  type  of  the  way  of  God  with 
man.  The  Spirit  that  moved  on  the  face  of 
the  waters  was  significant  of  that  divine 
power  which  substituted  for  the  disorder  of 
human  sinfulness  the  divine  order.  The  herb 
yielding  seed  is  the  soul  zealous  to  do  good 
works.  The  lights  which  are  set  in  the 
firmament  signify  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit. 
Man  was  created  in  the  image  of  God,  which 
signifies  that  he  should  be  able  to  know.  He 
was  created  in  the  likeness  of  God  so  that  he 
might  love. 

Thus  the  creation  of  temporal  things 
became  a  mirror,  in  which  man  saw  reflected 
the  conditions  of  his  spiritual  life. 

No.  I  on  the  Plan  XV.  represents  the 
work  of  the  fifth  day.  There  is  the  firma- 
ment above,  in  which  are  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars.     Below  are  the  waters  which 


272      The  Umbrlan  Cities  ^of  Italy 

have  been  gathered  together;  there  is  also 
the  dry  land  and  there  are  fruit-bearing 
trees.  Fishes  and  birds  have  just  come  into 
existence  as  manifestations  of  the  creative 
power  of  the  Trinity,  represented  by  the 
hand,  by  Christ,  and  by  the  dove. 

No.  2.  Creation  of  beasts  and  creeping 
things. 

No.  3.  Creation  of  the  body  of  man,  in 
which  the  imanimated  figure  lies  on  the 
ground. 

No.  4.  The  still  imanimated  figure  stands 
before  Christ,  who  conveys  the  living  spirit 
(Par.  vii.  137,  144). 

No.  5.  Adam  lies  asleep  on  the  ground, 
while  Christ  bends  over  him  and  cuts  the 
rib  from  his  side. 

The  sleep  of  Adam  is  a  type  of  the  sleep 
of  Christ  upon  the  cross,  and  as  from  the 
side  of  the  sleeping  Adam  came  the  woman 
Eve,  so  from  the  side  of  Christ  came  forth 
the  sacraments  of  the  Church. 

No.  6.  The  final  act  of  creation  is  that  in 
which  Eve  rises  from  the  side  of  Adam. 
She  is  animated  by  the  informing  hand  of 
Christ  laid  on  her  shoulder.    We  now  pass 


The  Duomo 


273 


from  creation  to  the  state  of,  mankind  in  the 
world. 

No.  7.  Adam  and  Eve  are  placed  in  Para- 
dise, and  they  are  forbidden  to  eat  of  the 
tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil.  In 
each  of  these  scenes  Christ  is  attended  by  two 
angels,  and  in  this  panel  one  of  them  seems 
to  pray  that  man  may  be  preserved  from 
the  coming  temptation  which  the  other 
indicates  by  a  warning  gesture.  Adam  and 
Eve  stand  tmder  a  fig-tree,  and  behind  them 
is  the  foimtain  from  which  come  the  four 
rivers  of  Paradise.  This  is  a  figure  of  the 
source  of  grace  which  is  spread  over  the 
earth  even  as  the  streams  flow  from  the 
garden  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  world. 

No.  8.  Temptation  and  Fall.  The  Devil 
took  the  form  of  a  serpent.  He  is  twined 
roimd  the  stem  of  the  fig-tree,  and  the  fang 
of  the  reptile  is  thrust  towards  Eve  as  she 
gives  the  forbidden  fruit  to  Adam.  The 
newly  created  pair  were  not  content  to 
discern  good  and  evil  by  commandment, 
they  must  learn  by  experiment,  and  in  their 
disobedience  they  became  subject  to  death. 
Man  lost  the  light  of  the  invisible  and  became 


274      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

absorbed  in  the  visible.  Salvation  was  only- 
possible  in  so  far  as  the  inner  sense  which 
was  thus  lost  could  be  restored.  It  is  the 
history  of  this  restoration  which  is  set  forth 
on  the  rest  of  the  sculpture.  It  is  com- 
pleted in  the  final  vision  of  the  fourth  pier, 
where  the  blessed  see  God  as  He  is. 

No.  9  represents  the  shame  and  confusion 
of  Adam  and  Eve  as  they  hide  under  the 
trees  from  the  sight  of  God,  who  called 
Adam  as  He  walked  in  the  garden.  In 
trying  to  represent  the  misery  of  the  fall 
the  sculptor  has  lost  the  conception  of  the 
wider  issues  involved;  he  shows  us  the 
personal  degradation  rather  than  the  tragedy 
of  the  entrance  of  disorder  into  the  world. 

No.  ID.  The  Expulsion  from  Paradise. 
An  angel  lays  his  hand  on  the  shoulder  of 
Adam  as  a  warning  that  they  must  leave 
the  garden.  Already  there  is  a  line  of  flame 
and  a  six- winged  seraph  with  a  drawn  sword 
guarding  against  any  return. 

No.  II.  Adam  hoeing  and  Eve  spinning. 
This  is  the  beginning  of  the  work  of  restora- 
tion. It  was  provided  by  divine  pity  that 
man  should  be  rescued  from  some  of  the 


Plan  XV.  —  First  Pier,  Duomo^  Orvieto. 


276      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

physical  effects  of  the  fall  by  the  labour  of 
this  present  life.  After  that  comes  the 
recompense  of  everlasting  rest.  Our  hearts 
and  bodies  must  be  alike  prepared  to  a  holy 
obedience.  The  necessity  of  the  discipline 
of  labour  was  thoroughly  recognized  in 
mediaeval  society.  In  the  rules  of  St.  Basil 
and  St.  Benedict  work  was  one  of  the  primary 
duties,  and  the  former  specially  provide 
that  devotional  exercises  should  be  no 
excuse  for  avoiding  the  duty  of  labour. 

Nos.  12  and  13.  The  Sacrifice  of  Cain  and 
Abel  and  the  Death  of  Abel.  These  two 
sons  of  Adam  were  regarded  as  the  founders 
of  the  two  cities,  the  mystical  Jerusalem  and 
the  mystical  Babylon.  Abel  was  the  first- 
fruits  of  that  Chtirch  which  existed  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world.  Cain  is  a  figure 
of  the  Jewish  people,  for  as  he  was  separated 
by  the  mark  set  upon  him,  so  the  legal 
ordinances  of  their  law  separated  the  Jews 
from  those  who  lived  in  the  light  of  the 
Gospel.  The  sacrifice  of  Abel  was  the  type 
of  the  Passion  of  Christ,  and  in  death  he 
was  also  a  figure  of  Him.  Cain's  sacrifice 
failed  for  want  of  a  right  intention;  he  is 


The  Duomo 


277 


the  type  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  who 
fulfilled  their  duties  outwardly  but  within 
were  full  of  wickedness.  Cain  and  Abel  are 
opposed  as  representing  the  two  principles 
of  order  and  disorder. 

Nos.  14,  15,  16  represent  a  child  learning 
grammar,  a  man  playing  on  bells,  and  a 
student  of  geometry  It  is  an  epitome  of 
the  development  of  human  energy.  Gram- 
mar is  the  door  through  which  the  child 
passes  in  his  first  search  after  knowledge. 
Music  stands  for  that  principle  of  proportion 
and  symmetry  which  enters  into  every 
relation,  physical,  mental  and  spiritual.  It 
was  regarded  as  a  type  of  the  common  bond 
by  which  all  things  are  composed  into  one 
harmonious  creation.  Geometry  was  con- 
sidered as  being  the  study  of  immovable 
matter,  and  its  significance  consisted  in  its 
tendency  to  lead  men  to  perceive  continuous 
existence  and  the  tinchangeable  essence  that 
lies  beyond. 

Grammar,  music,  and  geometry  epitomize, 
therefore,  the  arts  by  which  man  learned  to 
satisfy  his  wants.  Through  these  arts  social 
life  became  possible,   and  so  cities  were 


278      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

built  and  kingdoms  were  established.  The 
knowledge  necessary  for  practical  life  led  to 
the  higher  studies  of  philosophy,  and  these 
in  their  turn  led  to  the  searching  out  of 
divine  things.  That  which  connects  this 
series  of  sculptures  with  the  others  is  the 
hope  that  is  held  out  to  mankind,  even  in 
the  fall  and  the  expulsion  from  Paradise. 
Every  detail  of  creation  was  a  type  of  divine 
mercy.  In  the  scene  of  the  temptation  and 
fall  there  is  the  fountain,  the  type  of  divine 
grace.  In  the  murder  of  Abel  there  is  the 
type  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ.  In  the  scenes 
of  labour  and  of  the  invention  of  the  arts 
there  is  the  beginning  of  the  work  of 
restoration. 

The  Second  Pier 

PLAN  XVI  (p.  283) 

The  second  pier  has  for  its  central  idea 
the  tree  of  the  human  ancestry  of  the 
Messiah  springing  from  Jesse  (No.  17).  In 
the  branches  of  the  tree  are  described  the 
visions  of  the  prophets  in  which  they  foresaw 
the  coming  of  Christ.    The  following  de- 


The  Duomo 


scription  includes  only  the  panels  which 
appear  to  carry  on  the  main  idea  of  the 
sculptures.  There  are  at  the  sides  subsidiary 
scenes,  but  these  have  not  been  identified. 
No  evidence  exists  which  warrants  us  in 
deciding  what  the  various  scenes  on  this 
pillar  were  intended  to  represent,  nor  are 
the  subjects  obvious.  The  following  attri- 
butions must  only  be  accepted  as  suggestions, 
and  for  these  we  are  in  many  instances 
indebted  to  Mrs.  A.  H.  Smith  and  Miss 
Margaret  Smith. 

Above  the  figure  of  Jesse  are  six  righteous 
kings  of  the  house  of  David  (No.  i8).  The 
first  king  has  a  harp,  and  he  may  be  identified 
as  David;  the  yotmg  king  above  is  perhaps 
Solomon.  Those  above  have  been  supposed 
to  be  Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Hezekiah,  and 
Josiah.  Above  these  is  Madonna  (No.  19) 
and  Christ  (No.  20).  They  both  bear 
closed  books,  for  **  the  words  are  closed 
up  and  sealed  till  the  end  of  time  (Dan. 
xii.  9). 

The  skeleton  of  Adam  in  its  coffin  (No.  21) 
recalls  the  saying  of  St.  Paul,  For  since  by 
man  came  death,  by  man  also  came  the 


28o      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

resurrection  of  the  dead  (i  Cor.  xv.  20). 
The  sculpture  on  this  pier  is  the  expression 
of  the  vision  which  the  Hebrew  prophets 
had  of  the  coming  of  the  Man  who  was  to 
Hberate  humanity  from  the  bondage  of 
death. 

There  are  in  the  lower  courses  a  number 
of  figures.  Nos.  22  and  23  are  probably 
those  of  prophets  and  rulers  of  the  people 
of  the  Jews.  One  of  these,  however,  with 
covered  feet  and  with  a  crown  or  garland  on 
his  head,  has  been  identified  as  Virgil,  who 
was  supposed  to  have  prophesied  of  Christ 
in  quoting  the  vision  of  the  Cumaean  Sibyl. 
(See  panel  28.) 

Nos.  24  and  25.  Balaam^s  ass  sees  the 
angel  and  Balaam  prophesies  concerning  the 
star  which  shall  come  out  of  Jacob  (Numb, 
xxiv.  17). 

In  No.  26  Gideon  wrings  the  water  out  of 
the  fleece;  the  dry  fleece  also  lies  on  the 
ground.  God's  choice  of  Mary  when  He 
desired  to  be  incarnate  was  prefigured  by 
the  fleece  of  Gideon,  which  alone  was  wet; 
so  Mary  alone  of  the  many  daughters  of 
Israel  was  found  worthy.   The  water  wrung 


The  Duomo 


281 


out  of  the  fleece  was  a  figure  of  the  grace 
which  comes  by  Christ,  while  the  dry  fleece 
signified  the  people  of  the  Jews. 

No.  27  represents  the  consecration  of 
David  by  the  prophet  Samuel.  This  passing 
from  the  care  of  the  sheepfolds  to  the  ruling 
of  men  was  a  type  of  how  the  Gospel  was 
offered  to  the  Gentiles,  when  the  Jews,  the 
sheep  of  the  flock,  would  not  hear  it.  Jesse, 
the  father  of  David,  holds  up  his  hands  in 
the  attitude  of  prayer,  as  if  he  had  a  vision 
of  the  descent  of  the  Spirit  on  his  son  (i  Sam. 
xvi.  6-13). 

No.  28  has  been  identified  as  representing 
the  prophecy  of  the  Cumaean  Sibyl  quoted 
by  Virgil.  An  old  man  presents  the  Child  to 
two  women,  who  hold  between  them  a  globe. 
The  reference  made  by  Virgil  to  the  Sibylline 
verse  runs  as  follows:  The  last  age  of  the 
Cumaean  song  comes,  the  great  series  of  ages 
takes  rise  from  the  beginning.  Now  the 
Virgin  returns,  now  the  kingdoms  of  Saturn 
return.  Now  a  new  lineage  is  sent  down 
from  heaven.  Be  favourable,  O  pure  Lucina, 
to  the  boy  at  his  birth,  through  whom  the 
iron  age  will  first  be  brought  to  an  end,  and 


282      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

the  golden  age  will  arise  over  the  whole 
world," 

No.  29.  Christ  in  the  act  of  blessing  appears 
to  a  number  of  men  and  women  who  hold 
up  their  hands  in  adoration.  It  is  probably 
a  description  of  Isaiah  ix.  2:  The  people 
that  walked  in  darkness  have  seen  a  great 
light:  they  that  dwell  in  the  land  of  the 
shadow  of  death,  upon  them  hath  the  light 
shined.'*  (See  Matt.  iv.  12-16  and  Ephes. 
V.  8.) 

No.  30  is  probably  a  comment  on  Dan,  ii. 
34,  in  which  the  prophet  sees  a  stone  cut 
without  hands.  It  became  a  great  mountain 
and  filled  the  whole  earth,  as  by  faith  in 
Christ  all  the  ends  of  the  earth  are  filled. 

No.  31  is  a  reference  to  Ezekiel  xlvii.  1-13, 
in  which  waters  issue  from  under  the  thresh- 
old of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  These  waters 
make  a  great  river  going  down  into  the 
desert  and  into  the  sea,  healing  its  waters. 
Everything  shall  live  whithersoever  it  comes, 
and  on  its  banks  shall  grow  every  tree  for 
meat,  whose  leaf  shall  not  wither,  neither 
shall  the  fruit  thereof  fail  (see  also  Rev. 
xxii.  1-2),    The  windows  and  doors  of  the 


The  Duomo 


284      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

chtirch  to  the  right  of  the  panel  are  filled 
with  foliage. 

No.  32  probably  represents  the  childhood 
of  Immanuel  (Isa.  vii.  14).  Below  we  see 
the  results  of  the  establishment  of  this 
power,  typified  by  the  change  of  nature 
which  causes  beasts,  savage  and  tame  alike, 
to  live  together  in  peace  and  harmony  (see 
Isa.  xi.  1-9,  also  Matt.  i.  23). 

NOo  33  is  the  vision  of  Ezekiel,  i.  4-28,  in 
which  the  prophet  sees  the  likeness  of  the 
four  living  creatures.  The  sculpture  shows 
us  Christ  in  an  aureole  in  the  act  of  blessing, 
and  surrotmded  by  the  four  creatures.  The 
living  creature  having  the  likeness  of  a  man 
represents  reason;  the  creature  with  the 
likeness  of  an  ox  stands  for  the  spirit  of 
sacrifice;  the  lion  symbol  is  the  type  of 
fortitude  and  justice;  and  the  eagle  stands 
for  contemplation.  Thus  the  four  symbols 
represented  the  light  of  the  Gospel,  and 
taken  together  they  stood  for  Christ.  It 
was  a  vision  of  the  time  when  the  Gospel 
would  take  the  place  of  law,  and  when 
Christ  would  do  away  with  its  ordinances. 

No.  34  represents  the  story  in  2  Maccabees 


The  Duomo 


285 


iii.  14-40.  The  priests  of  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem  acted  as  guardians  of  money 
belonging  to  widows  and  orphans.  King 
Antiochus  sent  Heliodorus  to  take  this 
treasure.  When  the  latter  was  in  the 
treasury  with  his  guards  there  appeared  a 
horse  with  a  terrible  rider.  Heliodorus  was 
smitten  to  the  ground,  and  two  young  men, 
notable  in  strength  and  beautiful  in  glory, 
beat  him  with  many  stripes.  On  the  in- 
tercession of  Onias,  the  high  priest,  his  life 
was  granted  to  him,  and  he  offered  a  sacrifice 
and  vowed  vows,  seeing  that  he  had  thus 
escaped.  When  the  king  asked  Heliodorus 
who  else  should  be  sent,  he  answered  that  if 
there  were  any  enemy  or  any  conspirator 
against  the  king  he  should  go,  for  there  was 
about  the  place  a  power  of  God.  The 
chastisement  of  Heliodorus  was  regarded  as 
a  type  of  Christ  driving  out  the  money 
changers  from  the  Temple. 

No.  35.  This  panel  probably  represents 
the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  ii.  and  iii.,  in  which 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  is  foreseen  as 
the  result  of  the  backsliding  of  the  nation. 
The  particular  part  chosen  for  representation 


286      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

may  be  that  spoken  of  in  Isaiah  iii.  13-14: 
The  Lord  standeth  up  to  plead,  and 
standeth  to  judge  the  people.  The  Lord 
will  enter  into  judgment  with  the  ancients 
of  his  people  and  the  princes  thereof:  for 
ye  have  eaten  up  the  vineyard;  the  spoil  of 
the  poor  is  in  your  houses/' 

No.  36  is  probably  a  reference  to  Zech.  xi. 
12,  So  they  weighed  for  my  hire  thirty 
pieces  of  silver/*  which  was  understood  by 
the  commentators  as  a  prophecy  of  the 
betrayal.  We  are  also  reminded  by  such 
passages  as  i  Samuel  ii.  3  and  Proverbs  xvi. 
2,  that  God's  ways  are  not  as  man's  ways, 
and  that  it  is  God  who  weigheth  the  spirits. 

No.  37  is  probably  a  representation  of  the 
vision  in  2  Esdras  ix.  38-47  and  x.  1-17,  in 
which  a  woman  sorrowing  for  her  son  comes 
out  of  the  city  into  the  field,  and  mourns 
and  fasts  so  that  she  may  die.  The  woman 
(2  Esdras  x.  44-49)  is  Zion;  she  mourns  for 
the  City  of  Jerusalem,  whose  destruction  is 
signified  by  the  death  of  the  woman's  son. 
Then  is  shown  to  the  prophet  (2  Esdras  x. 
50-54),  the  future  brightness  of  the  glory 
and  the  comeliness  of  the  beauty  of  the  city 


The  Duomo 


287 


of  the  Most  High,  even  as  it  had  been  shown 
to  the  woman  in  the  field  (2  Esdras  x.  16) 
that  she  should  again  receive  her  son  and 
be  praised  among  women. 

No.  38  is  the  Crucifixion.  This  is  not  a 
representation  of  the  historical  event,  but 
rather  a  recognition  of  the  prophetic  view 
that  it  was  the  victory  on  the  cross  by  which 
the  bonds  of  sin  were  to  be  loosed,  and  the 
whole  world  to  be  reconciled.  The  sim  and 
the  moon,  the  only  details  of  the  picture, 
recall  Psalms  cxlviii.  2-3  „  They  were  also 
supposed  to  represent  the  two  Testaments 
and  likewise  the  divine  and  human  nature 
imited  in  Christ. 

In  No.  39  the  man  Gabriel appears  to 
the  prophet  Daniel  (ix.  21-26),  and  shows 
him  when  the  anointed  one,  the  prince  " 
shall  come,  and  how  the  anointed  one  " 
shall  be  cut  off. 

No,  40  probably  refers  to  the  declaration 
made  in  Malachi  iv.  2,  But  unto  you  that 
fear  My  name,  shall  the  sun  of  righteousness 
arise  with  healing  in  His  wingSo'' 

No„  41,  The  Archangel  Gabriel  in  An- 
nunciation,  He  flies  towards  Madonna,  who 


288      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

sits  in  the  central  line  below  Christ.  Mary 
raises  her  hand  as  she  says,  Behold  the 
handmaid  of  the  Lord,  be  it  unto  me  accord- 
ing to  thy  word    (Luke  i.  38). 

This  series  of  prophecies  is  remarkable, 
inasmuch  as  it  represents  the  spirit  of  the 
kingdom  of  Christ  to  which  the  world 
looked  forward,  rather  than  any  mere  ac- 
cordance between  the  terms  of  prophecy 
and  the  actual  events  of  the  life  of  Christ. 
It  would  have  been  easy  to  take  each  fact 
as  described  on  the  third  pier  and  give  its 
exact  prophetical  parallel  on  the  second. 
Something  more  than  that  has  been  at- 
tempted: the  prophecies  of  the  second  pier 
have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  coming  of 
Christ;  but  there  is  also  everywhere  a  sug- 
gestion of  the  spiritual  results  that  are  to 
mark  the  new  order. 

The  new  horizon  is  the  subject  of  the 
Sibyl's  prophecy  (No.  28);  the  new  spirit, 
which  is  to  animate  it,  is  the  note  of  the 
vision  of  Ezekiel  (No.  33).  The  descent  of 
the  Spirit  and  the  gift  of  grace  are  foreseen 
in  the  consecration  of  David  (No.  27),  and 
the  dew  which  Gideon  wrings  out  of  the 


The  Duomo 


289 


fleece  (No.  26).  The  new  life,  which  the 
gospel  is  to  bring  with  it,  is  described  by 
the  river  which  brings  healing  to  all  things 
(No.  31).  The  scene  from  Isaiah  (No.  29) 
shows  that  this  new  life  will  no  longer  be 
lived  in  a  world  of  shadows,  but  in  the  full 
light  of  the  skill  and  understanding  which 
Gabriel  comes  to  give  to  Daniel  (No.  39). 
The  stone  which  fills  the  earth  (No.  30)  is 
a  figure  of  all-pervading  faith ;  the  prophet 
preaches  hope  to  the  mother  who  has  lost 
her  son,  and  who  is  to  regain  him  (No.  37) ; 
while  in  the  crucifixion  (No.  38)  there  is 
the  supreme  sacrifice  prompted  by  love. 
The  stories  of  Balaam  (Nos.  24,  25)  and 
HeHodorus  (No.  34)  illustrate  the  power  of 
the  Spirit  when  it  is  opposed  to  the  worldly 
element  in  men's  lives,  and  the  prophecy  of 
Isaiah  (No.  35)  warns  against  a  selfish 
oppression  of  the  poor.  Finally  there  is  the 
contrast  between  the  disobedience  ending  in 
the  death  of  Adam,  and  the  obedience  of 
Mary,  which  leads  to  the  fulfilment  of  all 
prophecy  and  to  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  the  spiritual  and  harmonious  life,  which 
is  the  note  of  the  new  era. 


290      The  Umbrlan  Cities  of  Italy 

The  Third  Pier 
PLAN  XVII  (p.  293) 

We  now  turn  to  the  third  pier,  on  which 
is  sculptured  a  history  of  the  life  of  Christ. 
The  doctors  of  the  Middle  Ages  taught 
that  they  who  desired  to  behold  the  glory 
of  Christ's  divine  nature  must  follow  the 
journey  of  His  mortal  life;  we  have  there- 
fore such  epitomes  as  the  one  before  us. 
The  choice  of  subjects,  limited  as  it  is  pretty 
closely  to  those  connected  with  the  Nativity 
and  Passion,  indicates  that  the  intention 
was  to  direct  the  mind  to  the  Incarnation. 

Mediaeval  thinkers  were  accustomed  to 
regard  mankind  as  forming  a  mystical  body 
which  existed  for  some  purpose  or  end,  and 
which  was  directed  towards  it  by  some 
vivifying  principle.  The  purpose  or  end  of 
mankind  was  retmion  with  the  Creator,  and 
the  vivifying  principle  was  Christ,  who  was 
conceived  of  as  the  head  of  the  mystical 
body  composed  of  mankind  as  a  whole. 
The  sculpture  of  this  third  pier  was  intended 
to  explain  this  vivifying  principle  in  action, 
and  to  show  how  it  affects  the  life  of  each 


The  Duomo 


291 


individual  man.  The  sculpture  springs  from 
the  sleeping  form  of  Abraham  (No.  42),  and 
it  records  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise 
made  to  him:  In  thee  shall  all  the  families 
of  the  earth  be  blessed  "  (Gen.  xii.  3). 

The  tree  which  branches  out  from  this 
root  has  in  its  main  stem  the  spiritual 
ancestry  of  Christ  —  the  prophets  (No.  43), 
who  foresaw  His  coming,  and  who  predicted 
the  salvation  which  He  was  to  bring. 

It  is  the  tree  of  the  gospel.  It  is  the  tree 
which  through  man's  disobedience  had  be- 
come the  tree  of  death,  and  has  now  become 
the  tree  of  life. 

We  begin  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner 
with  the  Annunciation  (No.  44).  This 
scene  marks  the  reconcilement  of  the  world 
with  God.  The  true  light  has  descended 
from  heaven.  The  hopes  and  desires  of  the 
patriarchs  and  prophets  have  been  heard. 
Madonna  bears  a  closed  book,  which  the 
author  of  Isa.  xxix.  1 1  says  the  learned  men 
of  Jerusalem  would  not  read  and  the  im- 
learned  could  not  read.  The  prophecy 
usually  associated  with  the  Annunciation  is 
.that  in  Isa.  vii.  14. 


292      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

No.  45.  The  Visitation  was  connected 
with  the  prophecy  of  Obadiah  i.  i.  The 
scene  portrayed  was  the  occasion  of  the 
Magnificat.  This  song  of  rejoicing  marked 
the  contrast  between  the  lowliness  of  Mary 
and  the  pride  of  our  first  parents. 

No.  46  is  the  Nativity.  The  relative 
prophecy  is  that  of  Isa.  ix.  6.  The  ox 
and  the  ass  were  by  some  considered  as 
types  of  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  nations 
who  were  united  in  the  birth  of  the  Son  of 
Justice. 

No.  47.  The  Adoration  of  the  Magi.  This 
was  regarded  as  the  call  of  the  Gentiles.  In 
these  three  Magi,  all  people  worship  the 
Author  of  the  tiniverse.  Many  prophecies 
were  considered  to  be  predictions  of  their 
visit,  the  most  usual  one  being  Ps.  Ixxii.  15. 
Gold  was  offered  to  the  Child  in  His  character 
as  King.  Myrrh  was  offered  to  His  humanity 
and  incense  to  His  divinity. 

No.  48.  The  Presentation  in  the  Temple 
prophesied  in  Mai.  iii.  i.  The  old  age  of 
Simeon  was  a  figure  of  the  old  man,'* 
Simeon  bearing  the  Child  was  the  assump- 
tion of  the    new  man.'*    It  was  a  figure  of 


The  D^mo 


Plan  XVII.  — Third  Pier,  Duomo,  Orvieto. 


294      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

the  passing  from  the  shadow  of  the  law  to 
the  Ught  of  the  gospel 

No.  49.  The  Flight  into  Egypt  (see  Ps.  Iv, 
6-8  and  Hos,  xi,  i).  The  Child  went  down 
into  Egypt  so  that  grace  might  appear  to 
the  people  among  whom  the  slaying  of  the 
Lamb  first  foreshadowed  the  health-bringing 
sign  of  the  crosSo 

No,  50.  The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents 
was  predicted  in  Joel  iii.  19,  and  was  a  fore- 
shadowing of  the  persecutions  which  the 
Church  was  destined  to  pass  through. 

No.  51.  Christ  among  the  Doctors  is 
associated  with  Jer.  viii,  9.  This  incident 
was  considered  as  a  warning  of  how  the 
darkness  of  unbelief  not  only  prevents  the 
light  from  penetrating  to  the  tmderstanding, 
but  confuses  the  apprehension  of  the  knowl- 
edge on  which  the  unbeliever  prides  himself. 

No.  52.  The  Baptism.  See  2  Kings  v.  10. 
Christ  was  baptized  not  that  He  might  be 
cleansed  but  so  that  He  might  sanctify  water 
as  the  symbol  of  purification  for  man. 
The  opening  of  the  heavens,  when  the  dove 
descended,  was  significant  of  the  opening  of 
the  heavenly  kingdom  to  the  regenerate  soul. 


The  Duomo 


295 


No.  53.  The  Temptation.  The  relative 
prophecy  is  found  in  Nahum  i.  11.  In  the 
history  of  Christ's  temptation  men  saw  the 
struggle  which  they  themselves  had  to  pass 
through.  They  thought  of  it  as  inevitable, 
they  accepted  it  as  a  necessary  element  in 
the  strengthening  of  character,  they  saw  in 
it  the  opportimity  of  self-knowledge,  they 
rejoiced  in  it,  for  they  thought  that  victory 
brought  the  crown  of  life. 

No.  54.  The  Triumphal  Entry,  Zech.  ix.  9. 
This  scene  signified  the  entry  which  Christ 
was  to  make  into  heaven,  while  the  lament 
over  Jerusalem  foreshadowed  the  grief  for 
the  souls  who  would  not  hear  the  message 
of  the  gospel. 

No.  55.  The  Betrayal,  Ps.  xli.  9.  The 
choice  made  by  Judas  is  a  figure  of  the 
choice  made  by  those  who  prefer  material 
or  worldly  shadows  to  spiritual  and  celestial 
realities. 

No.  56.,  The  Flagellation,  Ps.  xxxviii.  18. 
It  was  thought  that  in  suffering  from  the 
crown  of  thorns  Christ  cancelled  the  curse 
which  had  fallen  on  the  earth  for  the  sin  of 
Adam.    He  who  though  blameless  suffered 


296      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

scourging  showed  what  sinful  men  ought  to 
do  in  punishment  of  their  evildoing. 

No.  57.  The  Crucifixion,  Isa.  hii.  5.  This 
is  an  abstract  of  the  usual  representation  of 
the  scene  with  Madonna  and  St.  John  at 
the  foot  of  the  cross  and  the  inscription  on 
the  tree.  The  view  of  the  early  Church  as 
to  the  significance  of  the  Crucifixion  is  fitly 
summed  up  in  the  saying  of  Leo  the  Great, 

For  who  could  overcome  the  world's 
hatred,  the  blasts  of  temptation,  the  terror 
of  persecutors,  had  not  Christ  in  the  name 
of  all  and  for  all  said  to  the  Father,  *  Thy 
will  be  done'?'' 

No.  58.  The  Maries  at  the  Tomb,  Ps. 
cxxxix.  18.  Dante  considers  the  three 
women  as  figures  of  the  Epicureans,  the 
Stoics,  and  the  Peripatetics  —  that  is,  those 
who  live  in  the  active  life.  They  search 
for  their  beatitude  in  the  things  of  this 
present  world  of  imrealities  —  that  is,  in 
the  empty  tomb.  The  angel  who  repre- 
sents the  divine  element  in  man  directs 
them  to  contemplation  as  the  true  beatitude. 
For  though  an  imperfect  state  of  blessedness 
is  f oimd  in  the  exercise  of  the  moral  virtues 


The  Duomo 


297 


of  the  active  life  beatitude  is  only  perfected 
when  the  intellect  contemplates  God  and 
ponders  on  Him  in  His  purpose. 

No.  59.  Noli  me  tangere."  Mary  Mag- 
dalene was  regarded  as  a  type  of  the  Gentile 
Church,  which  did  not  believe,  until  after 
Christ  had  ascended  into  heaven,  and  hence 
it  was  supposed  came  the  command. 

The  sculptures  of  the  third  pier  show  us 
the  fulfilment  of  the  expectations  of  the 
old  world,  and  present  a  forecast  of  the 
spiritual  life  which  was  to  be  the  vivifying 
principle  of  the  new. 

The  Fourth  Pier 

The  fourth  pier  is  sculptured  with  the 
concluding  acts  of  the  great  drama  of 
human  life.  Like  the  others,  the  design 
takes  the  form  of  a  tree  —  it  is  the  vine  of 
the  Lord.  Its  branches  bear  much  fruit  — 
a  symbol  of  the  souls  who  are  gathered  to 
the  communion  of  heaven.  In  the  upper 
part  of  the  pier  we  see  that  most  brilliant 
senate  set  in  this  most  splendid  senate- 
house.'* 


298      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


PLAN  XVIII  (p.  299) 

In  the  centre  Christ  is  seated  (No.  60) 
surrounded  by  the  choirs  of  angels;  to  the 
right  and  left  are  the  symbols  of  the  Passion, 
and  beyond  are  angels  (No.  61)  sounding 
the  trumpets  which  summon  to  the  Resur- 
rection. On  the  left  of  Christ  sit  the  prophets 
with  St.  John  the  Baptist  (No.  62),  and  on 
the  right  are  the  apostles  with  Madonna 
(No.  62). 

At  the  bottom  of  the  pier  the  dead  are 
rising  out  of  the  tombs  (No.  63).  In  the 
panel  above  this  (No.  64)  the  elect  are 
assembling,  and  in  the  panel  to  the  spec- 
tator's right  is  the  company  of  the  damned 
(No.  65).  Below  (in  panel  No.  66)  is  Hell. 
Between  these  lower  sculptures  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  design  where  Christ  is 
seated  there  are  four  panels  (Nos.  67,  68, 
69,  70)  in  which  the  blessed  are  shown 
approaching  the  throne;  they  are  guided 
and  encouraged  by  angels.  In  No.  69  there 
is  an  assembly  of  men,  including  St.  Francis 
and  a  Pope,  supposed  to  be  Nicholas  IV., 
while  women  are  gathered  in  No.  70. 


The  Duomo 


Plan  XVIII.  — Fourth  Pier,  Duomo,  Orvieto 


300      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

This  company  of  the  saints  is  about  to 
enjoy  the  vision  of  the  divine  glory,  re- 
garded by  mediaeval  speculation  as  the 
true  refreshment  of  the  soul. 

For  those  who  have  found  their  goal  in 
the  transitory  things  of  this  life  there  is 
also  an  everlasting  state.  We  see  it  in  the 
panels  No.  65  and  66,  where  the  damned 
are  gathered  together  to  suffer  the  tortures 
of  hell  (No.  66).  The  artist  has  tried  to 
realize  the  thought  of  St.  Gregory  the 
Great  —  how  great  is  the  confusion  of  the 
wicked  when  the  Eternal  Judge  is  discerned 
without,  and  sin  is  set  in  review  before  the 
eyes  within. 

In  its  relation  to  the  other  piers  this  is 
the  one  in  which  the  whole  scheme  comes 
to  fruition.  The  Creation  on  the  first  pier 
is  followed  by  the  Fall.  Then  begins  the 
work  of  restoration  in  the  institution  of 
labour  and  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  The 
second  pier  shows  the  early  development  of 
the  spiritual  life  of  the  world,  and  how  it 
advanced  with  the  hope  and  expectation  of 
a  Messiah,  as  its  principle  of  life.  The  third 
pier  continues  the  history  in  the  light  of 


The  Duomo 


301 


the  fulfilment  of  all  hopes  and  promises 
and  iinder  the  influence  of  the  example  of 
the  life  of  Christ  among  men.  The  goal  of 
all  striving,  the  end  of  all  effort,  is  reached 
on  the  fourth  pier,  where  the  blessed  stand 
in  the  sight  of  God  and  enjoy  the  full  com- 
munion of  saints. 

The  Choir 

Ugolino  di  Prete  Ilario  was  commissioned 
to  paint  the  frescoes  in  the  choir  in  1370. 
He  died  in  1384,  leaving  the  work  tmfinished. 

Giacomo  di  Bologna  undertook  to  paint 
here  in  1491,  and  Pinturicchio  was  employed 
in  1492.  In  1496  he  painted  two  of  the 
doctors.  Antonio  da  Viterbo  (1497-1499) 
is  supposed  to  have  painted  the  angel  in 
the  Anntmciation  and  some  other  parts  of 
the  frescoes.  The  series  is  concerned  with 
the  coming  of  Christ  and  with  the  life  of  the 
Virgin. 

The  fresco  in  the  vault  (a)  where  Christ 
appears  surrounded  by  Seraphim  and  Cheru- 
bim strikes  the  dominant  note.  In  the 
vault  to  the  right  (c)  there  is  the  mani- 


302      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

festation  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Rays  descend 
upon  the  earth  as  a  symbol  of  the  gifts  of 
"  Ineffable  Charity." 

In  the  lunettes  below  the  vault,  and  to 
the  right  and  left  (f  and  g,  Plan  XIX.)  are 
the  prophets.  On  the  side  walls  are  the 
apostles,  evangelists,  and  doctors.  The 
rest  of  the  frescoes  deal  with  the  life  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  as  the  direct  and  intimate  link 
between  the  human  and  the  divine  natures. 

PLAN  XIX  (p.  307) 

We  turn  now  to  examine  the  details  of 
the  frescoes :  — 

(a)  On  the  vault  over  the  entrance  is 
Christ  with  Seraphim  and  Cherubim. 

(c)  On  the  vault  to  the  right  of  Christ, 
the  dove  of  the  Holy  Spirit  spreads  the 
rays  of  its  power  over  all  the  people  of  the 
earth. 

(d)  On  the  vault  to  the  left  of  Christ  are 
the  orders  of  angels. 

On  the  side  walls  of  the  choir  to  the  left  — 
No.  I,  St.  John  the  Evangelist;  No.  2,  St. 
Matthew;    No.  3,  St.  Augustine;    No.  4, 


The  Duomo 


303 


St.  Jerome.  On  the  right  wall  —  No.  32, 
St.  Mark;  No.  33,  St.  Gregory.  The  defaced 
parts  of  the  wall  at  Nos.  30  and  31  no  doubt 
had  figures  of  St.  Luke  and  St.  Ambrose. 

The  circular  window  (A)  to  the  left  has 
traces  of  the  apostles,  each  contributing 
one  of  the  parts  of  the  Creed.  The  paintings 
round  the  window  to  the  right  (B)  have 
been  destroyed. 

The  spiritual  forces  of  the  old  and  the 
new  dispensations  are  suggested  in  the 
lunettes  (f)  and  (g)  over  the  side  walls. 
To  the  right,  at  (f),  there  are  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob;  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and 
St.  John  the  Baptist.  To  the  left,  at  (g), 
there  are  the  martyrs,  SS.  Laurence  and 
Stephen ;  the  martyrs  and  virgins,  SS.  Lucy 
and  Agnes;  St.  Martin,  who  parted  his 
robe  with  the  beggar ;  and  St.  Sylvester  and 
Constantine,  the  Pope  and  the  emperor 
who  established  Christianity  in  the  West. 
The  same  contrast  between  the  old  and  the 
new  is  kept  up  in  the  frescoes  round  the 
lancet  window  in  the  eastern  wall.  To  the 
right  are  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Melchise- 
dek,  Joseph,  Moses,  and  Job.    To  the  left, 


304      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

SS.  Ignatius,  Vincentius,  Nicholas,  and  SS. 
Mary  Magdalene,  Catherine,  Antonina,  and 
Agnes. 

We  must  next  consider  the  pictures  re- 
lating to  the  life  of  the  Virgin.  They  begin 
with  the  story  of  her  father  and  mother, 
Joachim  and  Anna.  Joachim  was  of  the 
city  of  Nazareth,  and  Anna  was  a  Bethle- 
hemite.  They  lived  a  simple  and  charitable 
life,  giving  a  third  of  their  goods  to  the 
Temple,  a  third  to  the  needy,  and  a  third 
they  kept  for  their  own  necessities.  At  the 
feast  of  the  dedication  Joachim's  offering 
was  refused,  as  he  was  childless.  In  his 
discomfiture  he  went  to  dwell  with  his 
hersdmen,  and  thither  an  angel  was  sent  in 
answer  to  his  prayers.  A  daughter  was 
promised  to  him,  and  he  was  bidden  to  go 
to  the  Golden  Gate  at  Jerusalem,  where  he 
should  meet  his  wife,  Anna.  To  her  likewise 
there  was  sent  an  angel,  who  gave  the  same 
message.  Thus  when  they  met  they  knew 
that  the  promise  was  confirmed  to  them. 
In  like  fashion  as  Sarah  bare  Isaac  in  her 
old  age,  and  as  Rebecca  after  a  long  time 
became  the  mother  of  Joseph,  so  to  Anna 


The  Duomo  305 


there  came,  as  the  special  gift  of  God,  the 
child  Mary. 

No.  5.  Joachim  is  driven  out  from  the 
congregation.   An  angel  appears  to  him. 

No.  6.  An  angel  appears  to  Anna. 

No.  7.  Joachim  and  Anna  meet  at  the 
Golden  Gate. 

No.  8.  Nativity  of  the  Virgin. 

No.  9.  When  three  years  of  age  she  was 
dedicated  to  the  service  of  God,  and  was 
brought  to  the  Temple.  Until  she  was 
fourteen  years  old  she  lived  within  the 
precincts,  being  visited  daily  by  angels. 
When  she  reached  the  proper  age  she  re- 
fused to  leave  the  Temple  and  to  be  given 
in  marriage.  The  high  priest,  therefore,  by 
command  of  a  voice  from  the  ark,  called 
together  the  men  of  the  house  of  David, 
and  when  their  rods  were  laid  on  the  altar 
a  dove  rested  on  the  one  belonging  to  Joseph, 
and  he  was  betrothed  to  Mary  (No.  10). 

No.  II.  The  Annimciation.  The  willing 
submission  of  Mary  to  the  message  of  the 
angel  was  an  evidence  of  her  deep  humility, 
as  opposed  to  the  sin  of  pride  {Purg.  x.  40). 

No.  12.  The  Salutation.    The  haste  with 


3o6      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


which  Mary  set  out  to  visit  EHzabeth  was 
used  as  an  example  against  the  sloth  which 
benumbs  spiritual  life  (see  Purg,  xviii.  102). 
Her  love  for  Elizabeth  and  her  readiness  to 
serve  were  cited  by  S.  Bonaventura  as 
evidence  of  that  charity  which  prompts  man 
to  love  his  neighbour. 

No.  13.  The  chastity  of  Mary  is  revealed 
to  Joseph  in  a  vision.  In  Purg,  xxv.  128 
she  appears  to  the  souls  who  are  being 
purified  as  the  symbol  of  this  virtue. 

No.  14.  Joseph  takes  Mary  to  his  own 
house. 

No.  15.  The  Nativity  of  Christ.  The 
lowly  circumstance  of  the  birth  of  the  Child 
is  set  before  the  avaricious  in  Purg.  xx.  19 
as  an  example. 

No.  16.  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds.  No. 
17.  The  Circumcision.  No.  18.  The  Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi.  No.  19.  The  Presentation 
in  the  Temple.  No.  20.  The  Flight  into 
Egypt. 

No.  21.  Defaced. 

No.  22.  The  Child  with  the  Doctors  in 
the  Temple. 

.   No.  23.  Joseph  and  Mary  miss  the  Child. 


Plan  XIX.  —  Choir  of  the  Duomo,  Orvieto 


3o8      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

No.  24.  They  find  Him  in  the  Temple. 

No.  25.  They  chide  Him.  The  meekness 
of  Mary's  reproof  is  used  as  an  example  to 
those  who  are  being  cleansed  from  the  sin 
of  anger  in  Purg.  xv.  83. 

The  frescoes  from  Nos.  15  to  25  (Plan 
XIX.)  represent  the  life  of  the  Virgin  in  its 
immediate  relationship  to  that  of  the  Child. 
They  also  suggest  how  her  life  was  regarded 
as  an  example  of  the  virtues  by  which  a 
man's  natxire  is  perfected. 

The  history  is  taken  up  again  in  No.  26 
(Plan  XIX.).  An  angel  announces  that  the 
soul  of  Mary  will  be  taken  from  her  body  on 
the  third  day. 

No.  27.  The  apostles,  who  were  miracu- 
lously called  from  where  they  were  preaching, 
kneel  round  the  bed.  The  night  was  spent 
in  holy  communion,  and  in  the  morning 
the  soul  was  parted  from  the  body  and  was 
carried  up  in  the  arms  of  Christ. 

No.  28.  The  body  of  the  Virgin  was  laid 
in  a  sepulchre,  and  there  it  remained  for 
three  days. 

No.  29.  On  the  third  day  the  body  of 
the  Virgin  was  raised  from  the  tomb, 


The  Duomo 


309 


(e.  Plan  XIX.)  In  the  lunette  over  the 
window  is  the  Ascension  of  the  Virgin. 

(b.)  The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin.  This 
consummation  was  regarded  as  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  saying  in  Rev.  iii.  21,  To 
him  that  overcometh  will  I  grant  to  sit  with 
Me  on  My  throne.**  It  was  a  pledge  of  that 
glory  which  is  to  be  the  lot  of  all  faithful  souls. 

These  frescoes  vary  in  merit.  Christ  re- 
ceiving Madonna  in  the  scene  of  the  corona- 
tion, the  figure  of  the  Virgin  in  the  Sposalizio, 
Christ  among  the  doctors,  and  the  Child 
found  by  His  parents  are  all  fair  examples 
of  an  art  that  does  not  take  a  first  place. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  expulsion  of  Joachim 
and  the  return  of  Joseph  and  Mary  to  their 
house  are  coarse  and  unsatisfactory.  If, 
however,  the  paintings  be  judged  as  a  whole 
and  from  some  little  distance,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  clear  shadowless  colour  and  the 
simple  dignity  of  the  forms  yield  a  most 
harmonious  result.  This  nai'f  art,  untroubled 
with  the  problems  that  beset  the  men  of 
the  Renaissance,  relies  for  its  charm  on  the 
simplicity  and  directness  of  its  means.  It 
finds  a  fit  object  in  the  simple  story  of 


3IO      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

Madonna,  in  which  S.  Bonaventura  saw 
reflected,  as  in  a  mirror,  all  that  makes  for 
goodness  and  truth. 

To  the  right  of  the  entrance  to  the  choir 
is  the  Cappella  de  Magi,  for  which  Sam- 
micheli,  who  was  Capo  Maestro  (1514-1521), 
ftirnished  a  design.  When  Clement  VI I . 
brought  San  Gallo  to  Orvieto  after  the  sack 
of  Rome,  he  also  made  a  design.  Both  were 
submitted  to  the  Pope,  who  decided  in 
favour  of  that  by  Sammicheli.  In  1535 
Simone  Mosca  was  employed,  having  for 
his  assistants  his  son  Francesco,  a  youth  of 
fifteen,  and  Raffaello  da  Montelupo.  The 
bas-relief  is  due  to  them,  and  the  work  was 
finished  in  1546. 

To  the  left  of  the  choir  is  a  relief  of  the 
Visitation,  designed  by  Simone  Mosca  in 
1546.  His  son  Francesco  worked  at  it  for  a 
short  time,  and  then  left.  He  was  recalled 
in  1550,  and,  with  the  help  of  Ippolito  Scalza 
and  others,  the  work  was  finished  in  1554. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  CAPPELLA  BELLA  MADONNA  DI  S.  BRIZIO 


HE  chapel  to  the  south  of  the  Duomo  is 


known  as  the  Cappella  della  Madonna  di 
San  Brizio  from  a  miracle-working  picture 
which  is  still  over  the  altar.  The  building 
was  begun  in  1408.  At  the  sides  of  the 
window  in  the  end  wall  of  the  chapel  are 
the  figures  of  two  bishops  supposed  to  repre- 
sent SS.  Brizio  and  Costanzo.  S.  Brizio  was 
bishop  of  Spoleto  or  Assisi  in  the  first  century, 
and  St.  Peter  is  said  to  have  given  him 
power  to  consecrate  pastors  in  the  churches 
he  should  visit.  S.  Costanzo  was  a  bishop 
of  Perugia;  he  was  martyred  in  the  second 
century.  In  1447  the  painting  of  the  chapel 
was  begun  by  Fra  Angelico,  who  painted 
the  Christ  in  the  vault  over  the  high  altar 
and  the  group  of  prophets  in  the  vault  to 


The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


the  right;  he  is  also  said  to  have  drawn  the 
design  for  the  group  of  martyrs.  After 
Fra  Angelico  was  called  away  nothing  was 
done  for  many  years.  Negotiations  with 
Perugino  fortunately  led  to  no  result.  It 
was  in  1499  that  Luca  Signorelli  was  em- 
ployed to  finish  the  vaults  of  the  roof,  and 
in  1500  he  was  commissioned  to  paint  the 
walls.  The  work  was  still  going  on  in  the 
year  1504,  and  there  was  money  due  to  him 
so  late  as  1509. 

Luca  Signorelli  was  a  citizen  of  Cortona, 
born  there  about  1441.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  government  of  the  town,  and 
Vasari  says  that  he  was  a  man  of  upright 
life,  and  sincere  in  all  things.  He  lived 
splendidly,  and  had  pleasure  in  clothing 
himself  handsomely.''  He  survived  both 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Raphael,  dying,  as 
it  is  believed,  in  1523.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Piero  della  Francesca,  and  it  is  supposed 
that  he  also  came  under  the  influence  of 
Antonio  PoUaiuolo,  a  Florentine,  who  was 
trained  as  a  goldsmith.  It  is  true  of  nearly 
all  the  great  Italian  masters  that  they  ex- 
celled in  fresco,  but  of  none  is  it  more  true 


SIGNORELLI  AND  FRA  ANGELICO 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  313 

than  of  SignorelH.  Many  of  his  altar-pieces 
painted  on  panel  are  in  existence,  but  none 
of  them  reveal  to  us  the  intellectual  quality 
and  the  imaginative  power  which  is  found 
in  the  frescoes  at  Orvieto.  Signorelli  is  not 
a  great  colourist;  he  has  no  suave  Umbrian 
sentiment,  nor  does  he  see  the  spacious 
distances  of  Perugino.  He  realizes  himself 
fully  only  in  terms  of  human  life.  He  gains 
expression  for  the  deepest  and  most  far- 
reaching  relations  of  existence  in  the  human 
form.  No  monument  of  the  time  is  so  thor- 
oughly characteristic  of  the  finer  develop- 
ments of  the  Renaissance,  and  no  other 
monument  of  the  period  (with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  Sistine  Chapel)  gives  such 
a  sense  of  power  and  strength. 

The  note  of  the  scheme  in  this  chapel  is 
Christ  in  Judgment. 

This  central  figure  is  preceded  by  a  history 
of  mankind  arranged  rotmd  the  great  poets 
of  antiquity  —  Dante  being  included.  These 
pictures  are  followed  by  the  signs  of  the 
coming  judgment,  including  the  reign  of 
Antichrist,  and  the  resurrection  from  the 
dead,    Th^n  we  have  the  judgment,  and 


314      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


finally  the  everlasting  life  of  beatitude  or 
punishment. 

The  visitor  is  advised  to  begin  by  studying 
the  pictures  in  the  following  order :  — 

I  (Plan  XX.).  The  pictures  in  small 
medallions  grouped  round  the  ancient  poets 
and  Dante,  distinguished  on  the  plan  by 
letters  from  B  to  L  2. 

2.  The  signs  of  coming  judgments.  Con- 
fusion (i.,  Plan  XXL).  The  reign  of  Anti- 
christ (ii.,  Plan  XX.).  The  destruction  by 
fire  (iii.,  Plan  XXL). 

3.  The  Resurrection  of  the  Dead  (iv., 
Plan  XX.). 

4.  Christ  in  judgment,  Plan  XX.  (v.) 
attended  by  the  spiritual  forces  of  the  Jewish 
and  Christian  dispensations,  patriarchs  (vii.), 
prophets  (viii.),  apostles  (ix.),  doctors  (x.), 
martyrs  (xi.),  virgins  (xii.). 

5.  The  wicked  carried  off  by  devils,  Plan 
XX.  (xiii.),  and  tormented  in  hell  (xiv.). 

6.  The  blessed  crowned  by  angels.  Plan 
XX.  (xv.),  and  led  up  to  heaven  (xvi.). 

We  begin  with  the  pictures  grouped  round 
the  ancient  poets.  No  names  are  given  to 
the  poets,  but  the  nature  of  the  paiatings, 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  315 

and  the  scene  in  Inferno  iv.  89-90,  where 
Dante  describes  his  meeting  with  the  sages, 
make  it  probable  that  they  are  Homer, 
Virgil,  Ovid,  Horace,  Lucan,  and  Dante. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  two  others  — 
one  perhaps  may  be  Empedocles,  the  other 
is  destroyed. 

On  entering  the  chapel,  Empedocles, 
Homer,  Dante,  and  Virgil  are  to  the  left, 
Lucan,  Horace,  and  Ovid  being  on  the 
right.  Round  each  of  these,  as  central 
figures,  there  are  small  panels,  generally 
dealing  with  some  scene  in  their  writings 
more  or  less  illustrative  of  the  large  frescoes 
above.  In  the  case  of  Virgil  there  is  an 
exception;  the  small  illustrations  are  not 
taken  from  his  own  poems,  but  from  scenes 
in  Purgatory  where  Virgil  was  acting  as 
Dante's  guide  or  companion. 

To  the  left,  on  the  entrance  wall,  there  is 
a  painting  which  has  been  supposed  to 
represent  Empedocles  (P  2,  Plan  XXL).  He 
looks  up  at  the  scene  of  destruction  and 
dissolution  above  him.  Some  have  thought 
that  the  philosopher  sees  in  this  a  realization 
of  his  theory  of  the  moving  forces  of  love 


3i6      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

and  hate.  When  hate  becomes  active,  the 
ordinary  bond  uniting  nature  is  dissolved. 
In  Inferno  xii.  44,  Dante  attributes  to  Em- 
pedocles  the  idea  that  the  alternating  forces 
of  love  and  hate  cause  the  world  often- 
times to  be  converted  into  chaos.'' 

PLANS  XX  (p.  323)  AND  XXI  (P.  327) 

The  first  poet  on  the  side  wall  to  the  left 
is  Homer.  Round  him  are  three  small 
pictures  (B,  C,  and  D).  They  have  been 
supposed  to  represent  scenes  from  Iliad, 
xviii.  The  shield  of  Achilles  is  made  by 
Hephaistos,  and  on  it  there  is  figured  a 
judgment  scene  supposed  to  be  that  painted 
at  D.  It  may  be  a  pendant  to  the  tragedy 
enacted  in  the  picture  C.  The  figure  at 
B  has  been  identified  as  that  of  Achilles 
arousing  himself  to  prepare  for  the  rescue 
of  the  body  of  Patroklos.  These  attributions 
are  not  convincing. 

Round  the  figure  of  Dante  there  are  four 
scenes  from  Purgatory. 

(F.)  Cato  meets  Virgil  and  Dante  on  the 
shore  of  the  island  of  Purgatory.  Virgil, 
when  challenged  by  Cato,  says  they  are 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  317 


there,  in  virtue  of  the  prayers  of  a  lady, 
who  descended  from  heaven.  He  declares 
that  he  was  sent  as  guide,  so  that  Dante 
might  reach  salvation  by  experience  of  guilt 
in  hell,  and  now  they  go  to  see  the  souls  who 
are  being  purified  {Purg.  i.  43-84). 

(G.)  In  the  foreground  Virgil  points  out 
to  Dante  the  boat  bringing  souls  to  the 
island  of  Purgatory.  It  is  impelled  by  an 
angel  of  God,  whose  light  is  so  brilliant 
that  Dante  shades  his  eyes  (Purg.  ii.  39). 
In  the  centre  of  the  picture  Dante  obeys  the 
command  of  Virgil  {Purg.  ii.  28)  to  bend 
his  knees  in  the  presence  of  the  angel,  who 
has  just  guided  the  boat-load  of  souls  to 
the  shore.  In  the  background  is  the  meeting 
between  Casella  and  Dante  {Purg.  ii.  76-1 11), 
ending  in  the  indignant  protest  of  Cato 
against  the  halt  which  the  souls  make  on 
their  way  to  the  mount  of  cleansing. 

(H.)  Virgil  asks  the  way  upwards  from 
the  souls  they  meet.  Dante  meets  King 
Manfred  {Purg.  iii.  113),  who  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Beneventum  (1266).  The  king 
sends  a  message  to  his  daughter  Constance 
to  comfort  her.    He  confesses  that  his  sins 


3i8      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

were  horrible,  but  Infinite  Goodness  has 
arms  spread  so  wide,  that  all  who  return 
may  be  gathered  within  them. 

(1.)  Virgil  and  Dante  begin  to  climb. 
They  motmt  on  broken  rock,  and  need  both 
hands  and  feet  {Purg,  iv.  33).  At  the  top 
of  the  narrow  way  they  sit  down  to  rest. 
Dante  wonders  why  the  sun  strikes  them 
on  the  left  (they  are  in  the  southern  hemis- 
phere) {Purg.  iv.  57).  In  the  background 
they  find  Belacqua  sitting  in  the  shadow  of 
the  rock  (Purg,  vi.  104),  more  negligent 
than  even  if  Idleness  were  his  sister  {Purg. 
iv.  110-112). 

The  next  of  the  great  men  is  Virgil;  he 
is  surrounded  by  scenes  from  the  Purgatory 
of  Dante. 

(K.)  Virgil  reproves  Dante  for  halting  to 
listen  to  the  souls,  who  are  curious  and 
wonder  to  see  a  form  that  casts  a  shadow 
{Purg,  V.  1-18).   A  number  of  souls  sing  the 

Miserere  {Purg,  v.  24).  Again  the  souls 
marvel  at  the  shadow  which  is  cast  by  Dante. 
They  send  two  messengers  to  inquire  of  the 
condition  of  the  visitors  {Purg.  vi.  29-30). 

(L.)  The    souls    gather    round  Dante. 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  319 

Among  the  crowd  are  Benincasa  of  Arezzo, 
slain  by  the  brother  of  one  who  had  suffered 
while  Benincasa  was  Podesta  of  Siena; 
Cione,  of  the  family  of  the  Tarlati,  drowned 
at  the  battle  of  Campaldino;  Federigo 
Novello,  a  Pisan;  and  Pier  della  Broccia, 
chamberlain  of  Philip  III.  of  France.  These 
all  desire  that  prayer  may  be  made,  so  that 
their  time  of  ptirification  on  the  mount 
shall  come  quickly  {Purg.  vi.  1--28).  In  the 
background  Sordello  embraces  the  knees  of 
Virgil  when  the  latter  declares  himself  to  be 
a  Mantuan.  Virgil  bends  over  him  and 
returns  the  salutation. 

(M.)  Sordello  again  embraces  Virgil's  knees 
(Purg.  vii.  15),  and  the  poet  says  that  he 
has  lost  the  light  of  the  sun,  not  for  doing, 
but  for  not  doing.  In  the  centre  of  the 
picture  Sordello  explains  that  the  darkness 
of  night  prevents  any  one  from  climbing 
the  mountain.  He  leads  them  to  a  point 
where  they  can  see  the  souls  of  Rodolph 
the  emperor  and  other  rulers,  who  had 
allowed  too  great  a  weight  to  the  things  of 
this  world.  The  kings  sing  the  Salve 
Regina    (Purg.  vii.  67-136). 


320      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

(N.)  Virgil,  Dante,  and  Sordello  hear  the 
souls  of  the  rulers  sing  Te  lucis  ante 
{Purg.  viii.  13).  Two  angels  with  flaming 
swords  guard  the  valley  against  the  serpent 
{Purg,  viii.  39  and  viii.  98).  In  the  back- 
ground Dante  talks  with  Nino  Visconti  of 
Pisa  {Purg.  viii.  53)  and  Conrad  Malaspini 
{Purg,  viii.  118). 

The  series  of  small  panels  dealing  with 
the  ptirification  of  souls  is  continued  on  part 
of  the  end  wall  of  the  chapel. 

(O.)  Dante,  having  fallen  asleep  {Purg. 
ix.  10),  awakens  to  find  himself  at  the  gate 
of  Purgatory  {Purg.  ix.  39).  While  asleep, 
Dante  has  seen  a  vision  of  an  eagle,  who 
bears  him  aloft  {Purg.  ix.  29-30),  and  Virgil 
explains  that  Lucia  has  appeared  to  him 
and  borne  Dante  upwards  to  where  he  now 
is  {Purg.  ix.  61).  To  the  left  of  the  picture 
Dante  kneels  before  the  angel,  who  sits  at 
the  gate  {Purg.  ix.  82). 

(P.)  Virgil  and  Dante  enter  the  first 
circle  on  the  motintain  of  Purgatory  through 
a  cleft  in  the  rock  {Purg.  x.  7).  On  the  sides 
of  the  path  they  see  sculptured  three  ex- 
amples of  humility,  viz.,  the  Anntmciation 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  321 

{Purg.  X.  40),  David  dancing  before  the 
ark  (Purg.  x.  65),  and  Trajan,  who  did 
justice  to  the  poor  widow  {Purg,  x.  74).  At 
the  lower  right-hand  corner  they  see  the  souls 
of  the  proud  being  purged,  who  bear  heavy- 
weights, which  bow  them  toward  the  earth. 

(Q.)  Virgil  and  Dante  meet  three  souls 
who  are  being  purged  from  pride :  Guglielmo 
Aldobrandeschi  {Purg,  xi.  59),  Oderigi  of 
Gubbio  {Purg,  xi.  79),  and  Provenzano 
Salviani  {Purg.  xi.  121).  These  three  souls 
are  supposed  to  represent  the  arrogance  of 
the  patrician  (Aldobrandeschi),  the  vain- 
glory of  the  artist  (Oderigi) ,  and  the  ambition 
of  the  politician  (Salviani). 

This  ends  the  series  of  small  panels  dealing 
with  the  purification  of  the  human  soul. 
We  need  not  be  surprised  that  the  only 
specific  sin  dealt  with  is  that  of  pride,  as 
it  was  held  to  be  the  root  of  all  evil.  The 
pictures  dealing  with  these  scenes  of  prep- 
aration for  the  enjoyment  of  heaven  are 
under  the  large  frescoes,  in  which  are  gath- 
ered the  saints  who  receive  their  crowns 
and  are  helped  on  their  way  heavenwards 
by  the  angels. 


322      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

(R.)  A  subject  of  tincertain  significance. 

(S.)  With  the  help  of  Cupid,  Venus  causes 
Dido  to  become  enamoured  of  ^neas. 

(T.)  Herakles  is  forced  to  cross  a  stream 
with  his  wife  Deianeira.  Nessus  offers  to 
bear  her  across.  The  Centaur  tries  to  carry 
her  off  instead,  and  is  shot  by  Herakles. 
Nessus  gives  her  a  garment  soaked  in  his 
blood  as  a  charm  against  the  infidelity  of 
her  husband.  Deianeira  becoming  jealous 
sends  Herakles  a  robe  on  which  there  is 
some  of  the  blood.  It  poisons  the  hero, 
who  dies  on  a  funeral  pyre.  He  is  carried 
to  Olympos  and  made  immortal. 

(U.)  This  may  represent  the  war  between 
Herakles  and  Hippokoon. 

(V.)  Devils  torment  the  damned. 

(W.)  Andromeda  is  exposed  on  a  rock. 
Kepheus,  her  father,  prays  that  Perseus  will 
rescue  her  from  the  monster.  Perseus  slays 
the  dragon,  and  claims  Andromeda  as  his 
bride  (see  Metamorphoses  iv.). 

(X.)  Phineus,  to  whom  Andromeda  has 
been  promised  in  marriage,  breaks  in  upon 
the  bridal  banquet.  Perseus  when  nearly 
overwhelmed  by  numbers  shows  the  Gor- 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  323 


VII 


Plan  XX.  —  Cappella  della  Madonna,  di  S.  Brizio,  Duomo» 

Orvieto 

gon's  Head,  and  turns  his  enemies  to  stone 
(Metamorphoses  v.). 
The  small  panels  from  T  to  X  are  upon 


324      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

the  end  wall  of  the  chapel,  and  under  the 
large  fresco  where  the  souls  of  the  damned 
suffer.  Passing  to  the  side  wall  the  two 
poets  Ovid  and  Horace  are  under  the  fresco 
where  the  devils  seize  and  carry  off  the  souls 
of  the  damned. 

The  following  panels  surroimd  the  picture 
of  Ovid:  — 

(Z.)  Typhoeus  having  dared  to  hope  for 
an  abode  with  the  gods,  is  buried  under  the 
island  of  Sicily.  The  struggles  of  Typhoeus 
cause  earthquakes,  and  Pluto  goes  forth  in 
his  chariot  to  see  if  his  kingdom  of  the 
underworld  is  in  danger  {Metamorphoses 
v.). 

(A  2.)  Diana  and  Pallas  counsel  Proser- 
pina against  love.  Venus  moves  Cupid  to 
shoot  his  dart  at  Pluto  so  that  he  may  be 
touched  by  love  of  Proserpina,  lest  she,  like 
Diana  and  Pallas,  should  renounce  the 
empire  of  Venus  {Metamorphoses  v.). 

(B  2.)  Proserpina  is  beloved  by  Pluto, 
and  while  she  is  gathering  flowers  he  car- 
ries her  off  in  his  chariot  {Metamorphoses 

v.). 

(C  2.)  Keres  goes  in  search  of  her  daugh- 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  325 

ter.  Cupid  points  the  way  {Metamorphoses 
v.). 

The  following  panels  are  painted  round 
the  picture  of  Horace :  — 

(E  2.)  Eurydike  having  died  of  a  snake 
bite,  her  husband,  Orpheus,  goes 'down  into 
the  underworld  to  recover  her.  He  plays 
so  sweetly  on  his  lyre,  that  they  who  dwell 
there  are  charmed  from  their  usual  tasks. 
Pluto  grants  Eurydike  to  him  on  condition 
that  he  does  not  turn  back  to  look  at  her. 

(F  2.)  Orpheus  breaks  through  the  con- 
dition laid  on  him;  he  looks  back.  Three 
devils  seize  Eurydike  and  drag  her  down 
into  the  underworld. 

(G  2.)  i^^neas  desires  to  visit  the  under- 
world to  see  his  father.  Charon  objects  to 
carry  a  living  body  across  the  river.  The 
Sibyl  shows  the  talisman  of  the  golden 
bough,  and  they  are  ferried  across  the 
Stygian  water  {Mneid  vi.  383-416). 

(H  2.)  Herakles  having  chained  up  Ker- 
beros,  descends  into  the  underworld  and 
liberates  Theseus,  who  is  seen  armed  with 
sword  and  shield. 

This  finishes  the  series  under  the  fresco 


326      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

of  the  devils  seizing  the  damned.  The  last 
of  the  poets  is  Lucan;  around  his  picture 
there  are  only  two  scenes. 

(K  2.)  Probably  a  scene  in  the  wars 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  described  in 
Lucan 's  Pharsalia  iv.  235.  The  two  armies 
have  fraternized,  and  Petreius  raises  the 
passions  of  the  soldiers  of  Pompey  so  that 
strife  may  be  renewed. 

(L  2.)  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  Pom- 
pey sails  to  Egypt,  where  he  is  slain  by 
Achilles  {Pharsalia  viii.  718). 

In  the  recess  in  the  wall  there  are  two 
small  panels. 

(M  2.  Plan  XX.)  Probably  represents  the 
martyrdom  of  Faustinus  —  perhaps  the 
saint  of  this  name  who  suffered  in  the 
time  of  Diocletian. 

(R  2.  Plan  XXI.)  Probably  represents  the 
death  of  Pietro  Parenzo,  said  to  have  been 
the  first  Podestk  of  Orvieto.  He  was  sent 
to  make  peace  in  the  city  in  1199.  He 
caused  the  towers  of  the  nobles  to  be 
destroyed,  and  was  treacherously  murdered. 
His  death  was  avenged  by  the  Guelph 
party. 


328      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


The  Signs  of  Judgment 

We  have  now  to  deal  with  the  second 
division  of  the  process,  viz.,  the  signs  of 
coming  judgment  and  the  reign  of  Antichrist. 

(i.,  Plan  XXI.)  The  first  sign  of  judg- 
ment is  the  confusion  on  earth,  the  signs 
and  wonders  in  heaven,  and  the  perplexity 
of  the  nations  described  in  Luke  xxi.  25  and 
in  Rev.  vi.  12.  It  is  an  account  of  what 
follows  on  the  opening  of  the  sixth  seal, 
when  the  sun  became  black  as  sackcloth  of 
hair,  and  the  moon  became  as  blood,  and 
the  stars  fell  upon  the  earth.  This  fresco  is 
on  the  entrance  wall. 

(ii.,  Plan  XX.)  The  next  sign  is  the  reign 
of  Antichrist.  As  we  stand  in  the  entrance, 
it  is  to  our  left,  on  the  side  wall.  This  is 
one  of  the  finest  frescoes  in  the  series;  it 
gives  a  remarkable  picture  of  the  trials  and 
temptations  of  this  life.  It  is  a  study  of 
the  evil  and  confusion  in  the  world,  the 
hopeless  discord  and  futility  of  human  life 
when  there  is  no  perception  of  its  true  sig- 
nificance nor  of  the  end  towards  which  men 
should  strive.    The  coming  of  Antichrist 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  329 


was  a  constant  preoccupation  of  the  mediaeval 
mind.  Aroimd  this  mysterious  conception 
centred  all  the  evil  tendencies  of  the  world. 
His  coming  was  to  cause  the  falling  away  of 
many  from  the  true  faith,  his  dominion  was 
to  be  short-lived,  only  extending  to  three 
and  a  half  years,  as  in  the  Apocalypse ;  but 
it  was  to  be  bloody  and  disastrous  beyond 
measure,  and  it  was  to  precede  the  day  of 
judgment. 

It  is  this  concentration  of  all  the  powers 
of  evil  which  Signorelli  strives  to  paint. 
The  drama  begins  with  the  fall  of  the  evil 
spirit  driven  out  from  heaven  by  the  sword 
of  the  angel.  Antichrist  descends,  as  does 
the  dove  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  rays  from 
above.  The  coming  of  Antichrist,  like  his 
kingdom  on  earth,  like  the  deeds  by  which 
he  beguiles  men  and  the  means  by  which 
he  imposes  his  rule  over  their  souls,  are  in 
form  the  duplicates  in  evil  of  all  the  good 
that  goes  to  the  establishment  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven.  The  descent  of  Antichrist 
brings  evil  and  death,  just  as  the  descent  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  brings  the  gifts  of  healing. 
He  falls  amidst  a  crowd  of  men  and  women. 


The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


Some  look  upwards  as  if  for  guidance,  others 
realize  the  tragedy  of  their  lives,  ending  in 
nothing  but  futile  effort,  evil  passion,  despair, 
and  death. 

The  coming  of  Antichrist  is  followed  by 
the  preaching  of  his  kingdom.  He  stands 
on  a  pedestal,  and,  according  to  the  prompt- 
ings of  the  devil,  he  speaks  to  the  crowd. 
There  is  no  weak  attempt  to  make  him 
odious  or  diabolic;  he  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  conceptions  of  Renaissance  art. 
He  is  grave,  reverend,  and  thoughtful,  full 
of  power  and  force;  and  yet  with  subtle 
art  Signorelli  makes  it  clear  that  the  kingdom 
of  darkness  is  overshadowing  its  king.  At 
the  foot  of  the  pedestal  lie  rich  vases  full 
of  coin,  and  other  symbols  of  the  voluptuous 
life  by  which  Antichrist  tempts  the  souls  of 
men  to  destruction. 

The  false  prophet  is  making  no  merely 
rhetorical  appeal  to  the  feeUngs;  he  knows 
the  weaknesses  of  humanity,  and  he  has  a 
lure  for  all.  He  appeals  to  some  by  suasion 
and  a  false  exposition  of  the  Scriptures. 
We  see  the  monks  and  learned  men  discuss 
his  positions  with  the  text  before  them; 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  331 

they  seem  to  be  weighing  the  promises  of 
the  good  things  of  this  life  against  some  faint 
recollection  of  a  better  and  a  higher  ideal; 
their  doubts  give  them  an  evil  conscience, 
a  troubled  expression,  and  an  irresolute  air. 
Where  persuasion  fails  Antichrist  tempts 
by  the  working  of  miracles.  In  the  back- 
grotmd  a  sick  person  rises  up  in  bed.  The 
incident  represents  a  cure  of  some  disease 
or  perhaps  a  revival  from  death;  women 
render  thanks,  and  a  group  of  men  look  on  in 
wonder  and  amazement. 

Another  group  is  tempted  with  gifts;  a 
servant  of  Antichrist  passes  from  one  to 
another  with  an  alert  and  acute  air.  A 
woman  in  the  foreground  tmwillingly  receives 
money  from  him;  she  turns  away  as  she 
holds  out  her  hand,  and  her  face  tells  us 
that  she  knows  it  is  the  wages  of  sin. 

Where  all  these  temptations  fail  Antichrist 
falls  back  on  violence  and  terror.  When  the 
appeal  to  the  intellect,  to  the  feelings,  and 
to  vicious  longings  has  been  resisted,  he  will 
break  down  resistance  by  persecution  and 
bloodshed.  In  the  foregroimd  and  to  the 
left  of  the  picture  one  of  the  emissaries  of 


The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


evil  strangles  a  man  with  a  business-like 
precision  characteristic  of  a  Renaissance 
bravo;  near  by  lies  a  monk  with  his  head 
split  open,  and  others  have  fallen  by  knife 
or  dagger. 

In  the  backgrotmd  is  a  magnificent  palace, 
a  fit  abode  for  those  who  live  in  the  pride  of 
the  eyes  and  the  pride  of  life.  About  its 
porticoes  move  armed  servants;  some  of 
them  drag  a  prisoner  to  punishment,  and  in 
front  of  the  entrance  Antichrist  stands 
watcliing  over  the  martyrdom  of  Enoch 
and  Elias,  the  two  witnesses  for  God,  in 
whose  death  the  Kingdom  of  Evil  was 
finally  established. 

The  third  sign  of  judgment  is  seen  in  the 
fresco  on  the  entrance  wall  (iii..  Plan  XXL). 
It  describes  the  vehement  fire  that  comes 
before  the  judgment;  it  is  sent  so  that  the 
old  world  may  be  purified,  and  that  from  it 
may  come  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth, 
impolluted  by  discord.  It  also  cleanses  the 
sin  of  those  who  are  alive  at  the  second 
coming,  and  have  not  therefore  climbed 
through  the  circles  of  Purgatory.  It  is  as 
a  pillar  of  fire  to  give  light  to  the  saints, 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  333 


and  to  add  to  the  torments  of  the 
damned. 

The  Resurrection 

After  the  signs  of  judgment,  there  is  the 
Resurrection  (iv.,  Plan  XX.)  on  the  side 
wall.  Two  angels  sound  the  trumpets  of 
the  resurrection,  each  trumpet  having  the 
banner  of  the  cross.  On  the  plain  below 
many  souls  have  already  risen.  They  stand 
in  groups,  most  of  them  gazing  upwards  in 
search  of  the  power  by  which  they  have 
been  awakened;  others  are  still  in  the  act 
of  freeing  themselves  from  the  grave  with 
much  effort.  Sometimes  it  is  a  skeleton 
that  forces  its  way  upwards,  and  to  the 
right  they  stand  in  a  group.  The  skeletons 
are  probably  placed  here  in  accordance  with 
the  legend  that  one  of  the  tokens  of  the 
coming  judgment  is  that  the  bones  of  dead 
men  shall  issue  out  of  their  graves. 

One  group  of  souls  stand  in  loving  recol- 
lection of  the  tender  affection  they  enjoyed 
on  earth.  They  have  a  melancholy  air, 
for  they  do  not  yet  realize  that  now  theirs 
is  the  life  everlasting.   There  is  not  a  single 


The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


example  of  theatrical  pose,  of  weak  or 
exaggerated  feeling,  or  of  forced  action.  It 
is  a  remarkable  realization,  that  stamps 
itself  indelibly  on  the  mind. 

The  Judgment 

Christ  in  judgment  is  depicted  on  the 
roof  of  the  chapel  (v.,  Plan  XX.).  He  raises 
His  right  hand,  and  with  His  left  He  holds 
the  globe  of  the  universe.  Outside  the 
aureole  of  light  which  surrounds  Him,  are 
choirs  of  angels.  This  fresco  is  for  the  most 
part  by  Fra  Angelico.  In  the  other  divisions 
of  the  vaulting  of  the  roof  are  gathered  the 
hierarchies  of  the  old  and  new  dispensations. 

(vii.  Plan  XX.)  The  patriarchs  were  watch- 
ers for  the  coming  of  Christ.  In  the  innocency 
of  Abel,  in  the  hope  of  Noah,  in  the  obedience 
of  Abraham,  in  the  meekness  of  Moses, 
they  taught  the  mysteries  of  the  spiritual 
life.  They  were  each  as  stars  giving  light 
to  their  own  time,  until  Christ,  the  true 
morning  star,  brought  the  fulness  of  light 
to  all  men.  The  group  of  patriarchs  is  the 
work  of  Signorelli. 


SIGNORELLI.  —  THE  DOCTORS  OF  THE  CHURCH 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  335 

(viii.  Plan  XX.)  The  prophets,  who  foresaw 
and  foretold  the  coming  of  Christ.  St.  John 
the  Baptist  sits  nearest  to  the  Saviour,  and 
behind  him  is  King  David.  This  group  is 
by  Fra  AngeHco ;  the  remaining  divisions  of 
the  vault  were  painted  by  Signorelli. 

(ix.)  In  the  first  harvest  the  prophets  had 
laboured,  and  in  the  second  their  place  was 
taken  by  the  apostles.  Madonna  kneels 
nearest  to  Christ. 

(x.  Plan  XX.)  After  the  apostles  there  came 
martyrs,  and  when  the  martyrs  were  taken, 
there  followed  the  doctors  of  the  Church 
(xi.).  It  was  through  their  preaching  and 
teaching  that  the  brightness  of  the  light  of 
the  Gospel  dispelled  the  dark  shadows  of 
ignorance.  The  Choir  of  Virgins  (xii..  Plans 
XX.  and  XXI.)  has  for  its  central  figure 
St.  Mary  Magdalene.  Many  of  them  bear 
palms  of  martyrdom.  They  move  the 
spirits  of  men  so  that  they  may  fight  the 
good  fight  and  win  the  crown  of  life. 

Thus  we  are  taught  how  the  goodly 
fellowship  of  the  prophets,  the  glorious 
company  of  the  apostles,  the  noble  army 
of  martyrs,  and  Holy  Church  throughout 


336      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

the  entire  world  acknowledge  the  infinite 
majesty  of  the  glory  of  Christ. 

The  Fate  of  the  Wicked 

On  the  side  wall  to  the  right  (xiii.,  Plan 
XX.)  there  is  the  scene  in  which  the  devils 
seize  the  damned  and  hurry  them  off  to  their 
allotted  place.  This  is  the  least  convincing 
of  the  foiir  large  frescoes,  and  yet  no  artist 
has  ever  more  nearly  conveyed  in  its  terrible 
simplicity  the  vision  which  Dante  calls  up 
in  Inferno  iii.  16-18:  We  are  come  to  the 
place  where  I  told  thee  thou  shouldst  see 
the  wretched  people  who  have  lost  the  good 
of  the  intellect.'' 

Signorelli  has  chosen  the  scene  which 
occurs  so  often  over  the  great  doorways  in 
thirteenth-century  Gothic  cathedrals.  At 
N6tre  Dame,  in  Paris,  the  wicked  are  gath- 
ered in  a  chain  and  drawn  hellwards  in  a 
mass.  Here,  at  Orvieto,  it  is  an  individual 
struggle.  Each  devil  seizes  his  victim, 
binds  him,  or  clutches  him  in  his  arms  and 
carries  him  off.  Some  fly  away  with  their 
prey,  and  three  armour-clad  angels  stand  on 
guard,  lest  any  of  the  lost  souls  should 


1 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  337 

escape  toward  the  way  of  the  blessed.  The 
devils  do  their  work  too  well  for  that,  and 
the  three  are  impassive  onlookers,  watching 
the  struggle. 

The  devils  gain  in  horror  from  their 
humanity.  Some  have  wings,  reminding  us 
that  they  are  fallen  angels,  others  have 
horns,  but  there  is  no  intention  to  dwell  on 
such  things,  and  there  is  no  desire  to  gain 
effect  by  grotesque  incident.  It  is  essentially 
an  intellectual  hell,  in  which  the  terror  is 
greater,  inasmuch  as  man  suffers  in  his 
highest  faculties  and  by  means  of  devils 
who  are  mainly  differentiated  from  himself 
by  calculated  hate. 

The  fate  of  the  wicked  is  continued  on 
the  right-hand  side  of  the  window  (xiv.. 
Plan  XX.).  The  design  follows  generally 
the  vision  which  Dante  describes  in  the 
third  canto  of  Inferno. 

The  group  to  the  right  of  the  picture 
await  the  coming  of  Charon's  boat.  His 
eyes  are  like  glowing  coal;  he  collects  the 
sinners  and  smites  with  his  oar  whoever 
Hngers.  As  the  leaves  of  autumn  fall  off 
one  after  the  other  ...  so  one  by  one  the 


338      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 


evil  seed  of  Adam  cast  themselves  from  that 
shore  .  .  .  and  ere  they  have  landed  on 
the  other  shore  again  a  fresh  crowd  collects 
on  this.''  In  the  background  of  the  picture 
there  is  the  crew  of  caitiffs/'  dreary  souls 
who  lived  without  blame  and  without  praise. 

Their  blind  life  is  so  mean  that  they  are 
envious  of  every  other  lot."  Their  aimless 
existence  on  earth  finds  its  counterpart  on 
the  confines  of  hell.  They  follow  an  ensign 
that  ever  moves  quickly  and  yet  leads 
nowhere. 

The  Lot  of  the  Blessed 

On  the  left  hand  (xv.,  Plan  XX.)  is  the 
fresco  describing  the  communion  of  saints 
in  Paradise.  The  blessed  are  looking  up- 
wards, they  have  seen  the  wicked  carried 
off  to  everlasting  torment,  and  their  faces 
still  bear  the  signs  of  the  stress  of  this  world. 
The  terror  from  which  they  have  escaped 
weighs  on  their  souls,  they  do  not  realize 
the  bliss  they  are  about  to  enjoy.  And  yet 
in  the  heaven  above  them  all  is  peace. 
The  nine  choirs  of  angels  join  in  unending 
harmonies.    Two  angels  in  the  centre  shed 


SIGNORELLI.  —  THE  LOT  OF  THE  BLESSED 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  339 

flowers  upon  the  blessed,  while  others  place 
crowns  of  victory  upon  their  heads.  In 
spite  of  all  this  joy  there  is  not  a  smile  on  a 
single  face,  human  or  angelic. 

It  is  a  paradise  of  men  and  women  who 
have  passed  through  lives  full  of  such 
experiences  as  make  them  grave  even  in 
the  divine  presence-chamber.  Here  there 
are  no  child-like  monks  embraced  by  child- 
like angels  as  in  the  Paradise  of  Fra  Angelico. 
These  are  beings  of  a  sterner  mould,  and 
they  are  still  in  the  heaven  from  which  the 
shadow  of  earth  has  not  wholly  passed. 
The  waters  of  Lethe  have  not  completely 
w^ashed  away  the  memory  and  the  bitterness 
of  worldly  discords. 

It  is  as  though  these  artists  of  the  Renais- 
sance had  cast  away  mediaevalism  without 
having  found  a  new  anchorage.  The  mourn- 
ful gaze  of  Botticelli,  the  sceptical  smile  of 
Leonardo,  the  passionate  tmrest  of  Michel 
Angelo,  and  the  shadow  over  Signorelli's 
Paradise  show  that  none  of  these  men  had 
found  a  resolution  of  the  problems  they  had 
to  face.  At  first  sight  the  crowd  of  naked 
forms  and  the  intimate  realization  of  their 


340      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

anatomy  seems  to  clash  with  a  conception 
of  the  ideal;  indeed,  this  picture  has  been 
regarded  by  some  mainly  as  a  study  of  the 
nude,  and  interesting  as  an  example  that 
may  have  inspired  Michel  Angelo. 

It  will  fall  more  truly  into  its  proper  place, 
if  we  regard  these  grandly  muscular  forms, 
standing  so  firmly  on  their  feet  and  facing 
us  with  such  stern  and  grave  purpose,  as 
symbols  of  that  fortitude,  of  that  strength 
and  fixity  of  will,  and  of  that  reverend 
regard  for  the  relationships  of  life  upon 
which  character  is  based. 

This  company  of  the  blessed  assert  the 
dignity  of  human  nature  alike  in  its  physical 
and  intellectual  development.  It  is  a  protest 
against  the  mediaeval  conception  which  re- 
garded the  body  as  the  prison-house  of  the 
soul,  and  this  world  merely  as  a  place  of 
preparation  for  the  next. 

If  we  compare  a  mediaeval  rendering  of 
Paradise,  such  as  that  of  Orcagna,  with 
this  Renaissance  conception,  we  find  in  the 
former  that  each  saint  has  his  or  her  worldly 
rank  in  the  spiritual  hierarchy  carefully 
recorded;    here  the  individual  does  not 


The  Cappella  della  Madonna  341 

stand  on  the  quaKty  of  distinctions  made 
in  this  world.  In  the  Paradise  of  SignorelH 
men  and  women  appear  as  such,  and  not  as 
bishops  or  abbesses  or  martyrs  or  virgins. 
We  do  not  know  who  has  borne  the  bxirden 
and  heat  of  the  day,  or  who  has  worked 
but  one  hour.  Here  they  are  all  equal,  the 
quality  of  humanity  is  enough. 

The  glory  of  Paradise  is  consummated 
on  the  wall  to  the  left  of  the  window  (xvi., 
Plan  XX.).  Angels  are  making  music, 
while  others  fly  downwards  to  help  and 
encourage  the  blessed  souls  on  their  way 
to  the  presence  of  God. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  CAPPELLA  DEL  CORPORALE 

The  Cappella  del  Corporale  contains  the 
reliquary,  in  which  is  preserved  the  visible 
signs  of  the  miracle  of  Bolsena.  The  miracle 
was  worked  in  the  Church  of  Sta.  Cristina 
at  Bolsena.  In  1263,  a  German  priest,  who 
was  troubled  with  doubt  about  the  Real 
Presence,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome, 
hoping  to  find  peace  of  mind.  He  visited 
various  sanctuaries  by  the  way,  and  it  thus 
happened  that  he  came  to  celebrate  mass 
at  this  place.  As  he  broke  the  bread  the 
wafer  was  turned  into  flesh,  and  blood 
dropped  upon  the  cloth  used  in  the  office. 
Upon  it  there  also  appeared  the  image  of 
the  Saviour.  At  that  time  Pope  Urban  IV. 
was  at  Orvieto,  and  thither  the  priest  went 
to  tell  what  had  befallen.  The  Bishop  of 
Orvieto  was  sent  to  verify  the  facts,  and 

342 


The  Cappella  del  Corporale  343 

afterwards  was  ordered  by  the  Pope  to 
return  to  Bolsena  and  bring  the  reUcs  to 
Orvieto.  The  Pope  went  out  in  procession 
to  the  bridge  of  Rio  Chiaro  to  meet  the 
returning  bishop;  children  spread  olive 
branches  and  flowers  by  the  way,  ^and  all 
returned  to  the  city  with  joy  and  gladness. 

The  miracle  happened  at  an  opportune 
time.  In  the  year  1208  the  blessed  Giuliana, 
a  nun  at  Liege,  had  a  vision  of  an  incomplete 
circle  of  light;  it  was  revealed  to  her  that 
the  bright  part  represented  the  festivals 
held  in  honour  of  other  mysteries,  while 
the  dark  part  signified  that  there  was  lacking 
a  festival  in  honour  of  the  Holy  Sacrament. 
The  institution  of  such  a  festival  was  at- 
tempted for  a  time  at  Liege,  but  the  Pope 
hesitated  to  make  it  general  throughout  the 
Church,  for  he  feared  to  make  a  liturgical 
innovation  without  some  proof  from  heaven. 
The  divine  sanction  was  found  in  the  miracle 
of  Bolsena,  and  by  a  Bull  of  the  nth  August 
1264,  the  Pope  ordered  the  celebration  of  a 
festival  throughout  the  Catholic  world. 
Thomas  Aquinas  was  ordered  to  compose 
an  office  and  a  mass  for  the  celebration 


344      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

which  was  ordained  for  the  glory  of  the 
Holy  Sacrament,  and  the  confounding  of 
heretics. 

In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
the  Manichean  heresy  was  rife,  and  besides 
maintaining  the  principle  of  dualism,  many 
of  the  heretical  sects  were  inclined  to  deny 
the  Real  Presence.  The  miracle  of  Bolsena 
came,  therefore,  as  a  most  welcome  means 
of  strengthening  the  position  of  the  Church 
against  her  enemies. 

We  now  turn  to  the  frescoes  of  the  Chapel 
of  the  Corporale.  They  were  painted  origi- 
nally between  the  years  1357  and  1364  by 
Ugolino  di  Prete  Ilario  and  his  assistants. 

The  frescoes  on  the  side  walls  nearest  to 
the  reliquary  have  been  repainted,  while 
those  on  the  walls  nearest  to  the  nave  are 
almost  destroyed.  The  entire  series  in  the 
clMper,  "both  on  the  walls  and  the  roof,  have 
a  Eucharistic  significance. 

PLAN  XXII  (p.  349) 

Beginning  with  the  paintings  on  the  roof 
over  the  reliquary: —  (a.)  Melchisedek  offers 
bread  and  wine  to  Abraham.    The  legend 


The  Cappella  del  Corporale  345 

rtins,  Melchisedek,  King  of  Salem,  offered 
to  Abraham  bread  and  wine,  for  he  was  a 
priest  of  the  Most  High  God/'  In  the 
Itinette  beneath,  St.  Jerome  explains  that 
Melchisedek  is  to  be  interpreted  as  King  of 
Justice  and  King  of  Peace;  he  signifies 
Christ,  King  of  all  priests. 

In  (b.)  Abraham  welcomes  the  three 
angels.  He  sees  three,  but  adores  only  one. 
He  brings  water  and  washes  their  feet,  and 
sets  food  before  them.  St.  Basil,  in  the 
lunette  below,  says:  "He  adored  the  Sa- 
viour, showing  His  coming,  and  he  foresaw 
the  future  mystery  of  the  Sacrament.** 

In  (c.)  Moses  and  the  Israelites  gather 
manna.  The  legend  is,  He  gave  them 
bread  from  heaven  having  all  virtue  in  it.** 

(d.)  Elijah  is  aroused  by  the  angel;  he 
kneels  and  adores,  and  then  eats.  He  climbs 
Mount  Horeb.  In  the  strength  of  this  food 
he  went  forty  days  and  forty  nights  up  to 
the  Moimt  of  God.  In  the  lunette,  St.  Gregory 
says,  The  angel  which  fed  Elijah,  that  is, 
the  angel  of  *  great  council,*  is  Christ,  by 
whose  help  we  exist  both  in  our  bodily  and 
spiritual  nattire.** 


346      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

The  four  divisions  of  the  roof  nearest  to 
the  nave  of  the  church  have  the  following 
representations :  — 

(e.)  In  the  upper  part  Christ  stands  with 
the  seven  candlesticks  about  Him;  over 
them  is  the  Host.  Below,  Christ  appears 
as  the  rider  on  the  white  horse,  crowned  and 
armed.  He  shoots  an  arrow  at  the  devil. 
The  legend  says,  A  crown  is  given  to  Thee, 
and  as  a  conqueror,  Thou  shalt  go  forth  to 
conquer.'' 

In  the  lunette  below,  Christ  stands  among 
His  disciples  holding  the  Host,  and  declares 
that  he  who  eats  shall  have  life  eternal. 

(f.)  A  figure  kneels  in  confession,  and 
St.  Paul,  pointing  to  the  chalice  and  the 
wafer  on  the  altar,  warns  mankind  that 
whosoever  eats  and  drinks  unworthily  eats 
and  drinks  to  his  own  damnation. 

(g.)  Christ  in  a  glory  of  angels  and  holding 
the  chalice  and  wafer  appears  to  St.  Augus- 
tine, who  hears  a  voice  from  heaven.  It  is 
shown  to  him  that  as  the  bodily  man  grows 
by  eating  food,  so  the  spiritual  man  must 
feed  on  Christ.  In  the  lunette  below,  there 
is  a  representation  of  the  Last  Supper. 


The  Cappella  del  Corporale  347 

Christ  gives  the  wafer  to  Peter  and  says, 

Take,  eat,  this  is  my  body/' 

(h.)  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  kneels  at  an 
altar,  to  prepare  himself  for  writing  the 
new  office  for  the  festival  of  the  Corpus 
Domini."  On  the  altar  there  is  a  book,  on 
the  pages  of  which  is  written,  I  am  the 
true  food.''  Above  the  altar  is  a  crucifix,  and 
from  it  Christ  speaks  to  St.  Thomas :  Thou 
hast  well  written  of  Me,  Thomas,  therefore 
thou  shalt  receive  the  reward  of  thy 
labours/' 

The  picture  in  the  lunette  below  is  defaced. 
The  scheme  of  this  roof  seems  to  be  summed 
up  in  the  saying,  By  partaking  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  we  pass  into  that  which 
we  then  take,  and  both  in  spirit  and  in 
body  we  carry  everywhere  Him,  in  whom 
and  with  whom  we  were  dead  and  buried." 

We  now  turn  to  the  narrative  frescoes  on 
the  wall,  beginning  with  those  which  give  an 
account  of  the  miracle,  on  the  right-hand 
side  of  the  chapel. 

No.  I.  The  miracle  of  blood  falling  from 
the  Host,  in  the  Church  of  Sta.  Cristina,  at 
Bolsena. 


348      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

No.  2.  The  priest  comes  to  tell  the  Pope 
of  the  miracle. 

No.  3.  The  Pope  sends  the  Bishop  of 
Orvieto  to  verify  the  miracle. 

No.  4.  The  Bishop  of  Orvieto  finds  the 
corporale  spotted  with  blood. 

No.  5.  The  Pope  at  the  head  of  the  people 
and  clergy  meet  the  bishop  on  his  retiirn. 
The  Pope  kneels  as  the  corporale  is  exposed. 

No.  6.  The  corporale  is  shown  to  the 
people. 

No.  7.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  presents  the 
office  for  the  celebration  of  Corpus  Domini, 
which  the  Pope  has  ordered  him  to  write. 
Passing  to  the  frescoes  on  the  left  wall  — 
Nos.  8,  9,  and  10  represent  a  fisherman 
putting  the  Host  into  the  mouth  of  a  fish. 
Three  years  later  he  confesses  what  he  has 
done.  The  priest  and  the  fisherman  recover 
the  Host. 

No.  II.  A  hermit  who  disbelieves  in  the 
Real  Presence  is  brought  to  the  altar.  As 
the  priest  raises  the  Host,  it  is  changed  into 
the  likeness  of  a  child. 

No.  12.  St.  Gregory,  having  consecrated 
the  Host,   presents  it  to  an  unbelieving 


350      The  Umbnan  Cities  of  Italy 

woman,  who  by  it  receives  faith  in  the 
Sacrament. 

Nos.  13,  14,  15.  A  Jewish  child  has  re- 
ceived the  communion  along  with  a  number 
of  Christian  children.  The  indignant  father 
thrusts  the  child  into  a  glass-blower's  fur- 
nace. The  mother  calls  her  neighbours. 
They  rescue  the  child,  and  put  the  father 
into  the  furnace  in  his  place. 

Nos.  16,  17,  18.  Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  when 
sick,  is  presented  with  the  unconsecrated 
Host.  He  detects  and  refuses  it.  The  con- 
secrated Host  is  brought,  and  he  sits  up  in 
bed  and  worships.  In  the  next  painting 
Hugh  says,  Let  the  Son  return  to  the 
Father,  and  my  soul  to  its  Saviour.'*  In  the 
fresco  we  see  the  wafer  .passing  upwards, 
and  the  soul  of  the  dead  man,  shining  with 
a  brilliant  radiance,  carried  to  heaven  by 
angels. 

No.  19.  A  number  of  Christian  prisoners 
have  been  taken  by  Mussulmans  in  battle. 
Among  them  is  a  chaplain.  The  Saracen 
king  demands  to  see  what  the  chaplain  can 
make  out  of  bread,  otherwise  the  prisoners 
will  be  slain. 


The  Cappella  del  Corporale  351 

No.  20.  The  chaplain  celebrates  mass, 
and  the  Host  is  changed  into  a  child. 

The  Christians  kneel  on  one  side  of  the 
altar,  and  the  Saracens  on  the  other. 

No.  21.  The  Child  stands  on  the  altar 
bearing  the  cross.  The  king  is  seated  on 
his  throne.  Some  of  the  soldiers  kneel,  and 
many  conversions  take  place. 

No.  22.  In  a  window  opening  to  the  right 
of  the  entrance,  it  is  possible  to  see  traces 
of  the  ofiferings  made  by  Cain  and  Abel,  and 
the  sacrifice  of  Gideon. 

No.  23.  To  the  left  of  the  entrance,  helow 
the  first  lunette,  there  is  a  representation  of 
the  meal  of  the  Passover. 

No.  24.  On  the  underside  of  the  arch,  to 
the  left  of  the  entrance,  three  frescoes  show 
how  a  heretic  attempted  to  deceive  a  believer 
with  a  representation  of  a  false  Madonna 
and  Child.  The  believer  takes  advice  of  St. 
Peter  Martyr.  The  saint  elevates  the  Host, 
and  the  Child  falls  from  the  knee  of  the 
false  representation. 

The  reliquary,  in  which  is  preserved  the 
corporale,  was  made  by  Ugolino  di  Maestro 
Vieri  in  1337.     It  is  adorned  with  eight 


352      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

representations  of  the  story  of  the  miracle 
and  seven  scenes  from  the  life  of  Christ. 

I.  The  Priest  says  Mass.  2.  The  Priest 
tells  the  Pope  of  the  Miracle.  3.  The  Pope 
sends  the  Bishop  to  inquire.  4.  The  Bishop 
verifies  the  Priest's  Account.  5.  The  Bishop 
returns  with  the  Corporale.  6.  The  Pope 
comes  out  of  Orvieto  to  meet  him.  7.  The 
Pope  shows  the  Corporale  to  the  People.  8. 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas  presents  a  copy  of  the 
Office  he  has  written  for  the  Festival.  9.  The 
Entry  into  Jerusalem.  10.  The  Last  Supper. 
II.  The  Washing  of  the  Feet.  12.  The  Ser- 
nion  to  the  Apostles  after  the  Supper. 

Below  these  are  representations  of  the 
Annunciation,  the  Nativity,  and  the  Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi.  At  the  four  corners  are 
figures  of  the  four  Evangelists. 

The  Font 

Near  the  western  door,  which  is  most 
commonly  used,  there  is  a  font  of  Renais- 
sance workmanship.  It  is  supported  on  a 
base  carried  by  eight  lions.  The  work  was  be- 
gun in  1390  by  Luca  di  Giovanni  of  Siena  and 
it  was  finished  in  1407,  while  Sano  di  Matteo 


The  Cappella  del  Corporale  353 

of  Siena  was  Capo  Maestro.  The  font  is  of 
the  traditional  octagonal  form. 

The  most  noteworthy  thing  is  the  sculpture 
on  a  small  fillet  which  surrounds  the  basin. 
In  addition  to  some  ornamental  work  there 
are  allegorical  subjects  not  easy  to  explain. 
One  subject  shows  a  wolf  suckling  children, 
while  another  wolf  carries  off  a  lamb.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  the  one  wolf  is  the 
true  Pope  who  nourishes  the  Church,  while 
the  other  is  the  Antipope  who  ravages  the 
fold.  There  are  besides  symbols  of  the  seven 
virtues.  Faith  is  indicated  by  the  Host  and 
chalice,  next  is  Hope,  and  beyond  there  is 
a  figure  with  a  flaming  censer  expressive  of 
charity.  Prudence,  justice,  temperance, 
and  fortitude  are  also  personified.  They 
appear  here  as  the  result  of  the  purification 
and  illumination  wrought  by  the  waters  of 
baptism. 

Near  the  font  on  the  wall  of  the  aisle  is 
a  fresco  by  Gentile  de  Fabriano  (1360, 
70-1427,  28?).  The  picture  has  been  much 
damaged;  it  is  still,  however,  a  charming 
example  of  Umbrian  sentiment. 


CHAPTER  VII 


OTHER  CHURCHES 

SDOMENICO  was  begun  on  a  small 
•  scale  in  1233,  but  in  1245  the  plan 
was  changed  by  the  Cardinal  Anibaldo 
Anibaldeschi  in  favour  of  a  more  magnificent 
church  with  a  large  convent  attached.  The 
designs  of  the  cardinal  were  too  ambitious. 
The  vast  structure  remained  in  an  incomplete 
state  tmtil  the  seventeenth  century,  when 
it  was  finished  off  on  a  smaller  scale. 

St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  who  lived  in  Orvieto 
for  a  year,  from  1263  to  1264,  persuaded 
Urban  IV.  to  consecrate  this  church.  It  is 
said  that  the  learned  doctor  not  only  taught 
theology  in  the  town,  but  wrote,  during  the 
time  of  his  visit,  the  office  of  the  Corpus 
Domini,  the  first  book  of  the  Catena  Aurea, 
and  his  commentary  upon  the  De  Anima  of 
Aristotle.   An  ancient  wooden  crucifix,  and 

354 


Other  Churches  355 


a  chair  in  this  church,  are  shown  as  having 
been  used  by  St.  Thomas.  The  chief  object 
of  interest  is  the  monument  erected  by 
Arnolfo  del  Cambio  (1232-13 10)  to  Cardinal 
Guglielmo  di  Bray,  who  died  in  Orvieto  in 
1280.  The  tomb  may  be  compared  with 
the  similar  design  by  Giovanni  Pisano  for 
the  monument  to  Benedict  XI.  in  the  Church 
of  S.  Domenico  in  Perugia. 

The  design  of  the  cardinal's  tomb  is 
architecturally  superior  to  the  monument  at 
Perugia.  The  lower  part,  ornamented  with 
mosaic,  is  particularly  successful.  The  re- 
cumbent figure,  with  severely  simple  drapery, 
is  very  fine  in  general  outline.  But  the  face 
of  the  cardinal  cannot  compare  with  the 
magnificently  dignified  features  of  the  dead 
Pope  by  Giovanni  Pisano. 

The  theme  of  the  curtain-drawing  angels 
was  probably  invented  by  Arnolfo,  and  used 
by  him  on  this  monument  for  the  first  time. 
These  angels  have  no  wings,  and  are  clothed 
in  dalmatics.  They  seem  busily  concerned 
with  their  duties,  and  are  altogether  less 
restrained  and  less  beautiful  than  the  angels 
of  Giovanni  at  Perugia.    Above  the  lying 


356      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

statue  is  a  seated  Madonna  and  Child  on  a 
throne  richly  ornamented  with  mosaics  and 
twisted  columns.  On  either  side,  under 
niches,  are  the  figures  of  St.  Dominic,  and 
the  kneeling  cardinal,  presented  to  the 
Virgin  by  a  Dominican  monk. 

The  majestic  figure  of  the  Madonna  recalls 
something  of  the  imperial  air  of  the  Virgin 
by  Niccolo  Pis^no  on  the  pulpit  at  Pisa. 

A  sepulchral  chapel  in  the  church  was 
built  by  Michele  Sammicheli  for  one  of  the 
Petrucci  family  of  Siena,  who  died  in  Orvieto 
in  1517. 

S.  Andrea,  in  the  Piazza  Vittorio  Em- 
manuele,  is  an  ancient  church  built  before 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  upon 
the  site  of  a  Roman  temple  dedicated  to 
Juno.  The  church  has  no  architectural 
features  of  interest,  and  is  noteworthy  chiefly 
from  its  associations  with  some  of  the  most 
solemn  events  and  deeds  of  the  mediaeval 
republic.  On  the  Feast  of  the  Assumption 
it  was  the  custom  for  the  conquered  towns 
and  castles  annually  to  offer  their  tribute  as 
a  sign  of  submission  to  the  Orvietans  at  the 
doorway  of  S.  Andrea.    Pietro  Parenzo,  the 


Other  Churches  357 


first  Podesta,  who  was  murdered  in  Orvieto, 
was  canonized  here. 

In  1 281  Martin  IV.  received  the  papal 
tiara  in  this  church,  in  the  presence  of 
Charles  of  Anjou.  On  a  pier  of  the  crossing, 
to  the  right,  is  a  small  pulpit  richly  inlaid 
with  cosmati  work. 

The  Church  of  S.  Francesco,  built  upon 
the  highest  part  of  the  city,  dates  from  1229. 
It  was  in  this  building  that  Boniface  VIIL 
canonized  St.  Louis,  King  of  France,  in 
1297.  The  church  was  also  the  scene  of  the 
magnificent  fimeral  of  Prince  Henry  of  Eng- 
land, murdered  by  Guy  de  Montfort  in 
Viterbo  in  1273.  There  were  present  on  the 
occasion  the  English  king,  Edward  I.,  and 
his  queen,  as  well  as  Charles  of  Anjou  and 
Pope  Gregory  X. 

Several  members  of  the  famous  Monal- 
deschi  family  are  buried  in  this  church. 

S.  Giovenale  is  probably  the  oldest  Or- 
vietan  church,  having  been  constructed  in 
1004  at  the  expense  of  the  families  of  the 
Monaldeschi,  Rinaldini,  and  the  Cotmts  of 
Marsciano. 

The  building  tmderwent  radical  modifica- 


358      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

tions  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  again 
in  1640,  but  some  traces  still  remain  of  the 
Romanesque  period.  The  high  altar,  for 
example,  is  formed  of  a  marble  slab  covered 
with  interlacing  patterns  of  crosses  and 
circles.  On  the  pilasters  at  the  corners  are 
the  figures  of  a  dove,  a  griffin,  a  bishop,  and 
the  Archangel  Michael.  The  date  11 70  may 
be  seen  on  the  side.  The  church  also  possesses 
an  interesting  ivory  casket  of  Romanesque 
workmanship,  with  the  symbolical  figures  of 
a  lamb  between  a  peacock  and  a  pelican, 
signifying  the  Redeemer,  who,  by  His  sacri- 
fice, bestowed  the  gift  of  everlasting  beatitude 
upon  man.  Christ  is  symbolized  by  the 
lamb,  His  sacrifice  by  the  pelican,  and 
immortality  by  the  peacock. 

The  Monastery  of  SS.  Severo  and  Martirio, 
known  as  La  Badia,  is  about  one  and  a  half 
miles  beyond  the  Porta  Romana.  It  can  be 
reached  by  carriage  from  the  road,  or  on 
foot  by  pleasant  paths  through  vine  and 
olive  gardens.  The  building  was  begun  in 
the  eighth  century,  and  was  enlarged  and 
enriched  at  different  times  up  to  the  four- 
teenth century.    The  ten-sided  campanile 


Other  Churches  359 


in  the  Romanesque  style  was  added  by  the 
Countess  Matilda,  who  died  in  11 17.  Some 
marble  fragments,  remains  of  the  older 
construction,  may  be  seen  built  into  the 
walls  of  the  tower.  The  windows  are  roimd- 
arched  and  divided  by  a  single  column. 

The  cloister  has  round-headed  windows 
with  Romanesque  ornament,  but  the  capitals 
of  the  columns  are  Gothic  in  character.  The 
monastery  was  inhabited  by  Benedictine 
monks  tmtil  1221.  It  was  then  given  by 
Honorius  III.  to  the  regular  canons  of  the 
Premonstratensians.  In  1423  Martin  V. 
bestowed  it  upon  the  Olivetans,  who  in  turn 
were  dispossessed  by  Eugenius  IV.  in  1442, 
and  the  rich  monastery  passed  into  the 
hands  of  Cardinal  Barbo,  the  nephew  of  the 
Pope. 

The  Well  of  St.  Patrick  (Pozzo  di  S. 
Patrizio),  near  to  the  fortress,  is  an  ingenious 
and  unusual  construction  built  by  the  archi- 
tect, San  Gallo,  in  1527.  Clement  VII.  had 
fled  to  Orvieto  for  refuge  after  the  sack  of 
Rome  by  the  Constable  Bourbon;  and 
fearing  that  the  water  supply  of  the  town 
would  prove  deficient  m  the  case  of  a  siege, 


360      The  Umbrian  Cities  of  Italy 

he  ordered  the  construction  of  this  magnif- 
icent well.  The  shaft  is  about  one  hundred 
and  eighty  feet  deep,  and  forty-six  feet  in 
diameter.  There  are  two  staircases,  one  for 
the  ascent,  and  the  other  for  the  descent, 
wide  enough  for  the  passage  of  mules.  The 
walls  are  pierced  by  seventy- two  windows, 
and  through  these  openings,  one  can  see 
far  down  at  the  bottom  a  speck  of  water 
circled  round  by  a  green  wall  of  delicate 
ferns.  It  is  said  that  San  Gallo  took  the 
idea  of  this  stairway  from  Niccolo  Pisano's 
designs  for  the  campanile  at  Pisa.  Clement 
VII.  died  before  the  completion  of  the 
structure,  and  his  successor  Paul  III.  gave 
the  work  to  Simon  Mosca,  who  transformed 
the  balls  of  the  Medici  arms,  which  Clement 
had  placed  above  the  door,  into  the  lilies  of 
the  Farnese  house. 

The  inscription  on  the  upper  building 
runs,  QUOD  NATURA  MUNIMENTO 
INVIDERAT    IN  DU  STRIA  ADJECIT. 

Industry  supplies  what  nature  is  unwilling 
to  bestow.'' 


END  OF  VOLUME  I. 


Index 


Adrian  IV.,  207,  208. 

Agnes,  19. 

Albornoz,  Egidio  (Cardi- 
nal), 52,  183,  210. 

Alessi,  architect,  11. 

Ammanato,  Tura  dell,  251. 

Anabaldeschi,  Anibaldo, 
354. 

Angelico,  Fra,  311,  312. 
Antelami,  sculptor,  63. 
Antonio  da  Foligno  (see 

Mezzastris). 
Antonio  da  Viterbo,  301. 
Aquinas,  St.  Thomas,  354. 
Arnolfo  del  Cambio,  256, 

355. 

Artistic  influences  in  As- 

sisi,  57. 
Assisium,  3. 

Barbo,  Cardinal,  359. 
Benedicta,  Abbess,  193. 
Bernard    of  Quintavalle, 
23. 

Bernadone,  Pietro,  21. 
Bevignate,  Fra,  258. 
Bolsena,  Miracle  of,  208, 

260,  342-344- 
Boniface  VIII.,  207,  357. 
Boniface  IX.,  211. 

36 


Bucchero  ware,  215,  234, 

236-238,  249. 
"  Buon    Viaggio,"  villa, 

220. 

Bracchio,  condottiere,  211. 
Bray,  Guglielmo  di,  Car- 
dinal, 355. 

Camerino,  Boccati  da,  194. 
Campello,  Filippo  da,  50. 
Campo  Santo,  the,  219. 
"Canticle  of  the  Sun,"  40. 
Carceri,  Hermitage  of  the, 

8,  9,  28,  45. 
Catana,  Pietro  di,  27,  36. 
Catherine  of  Cyprus,  54. 
Cavallini,  Pietro,  65. 
Cellini,  Benvenuto,  252. 
Charles  of  Anjou,  357. 
Chiagio,  river,  20. 
Churches  and  Chapels. 

In  Assisi: 

Capella    dei  Pellegrini, 
194. 

Capella  de  S.  Francesco, 
21. 

Capella  Primitiva,  46. 
Chiesa  Nuova,  21. 
Duomo  (S.  Rufino),  8, 
10-20. 


362 


Index 


Porziuncolo,  8,  22,  23, 

27,  28,  31,  35. 
Rivo  Tor  to,  36. 
St.  Agnes,  190. 
St.  Anthony  the  Abbot, 

52,  54,  178-181. 
St  Anthony  of  Padua, 

56,  178-181. 
St.  Bernardino,  46,  47. 
S.  Carlo  Borromeo,  31. 
St.      Catherine  (del 

Crocefisso),     52,  54, 

183-186. 
Sta.    Chiara,    49,  187- 

194. 

S.  Damiano,  23,  27,  28, 
36,  37-44,  49,  187,  193. 

S.  Francesco,  4,  5,  6,  7, 
9,  45,  49-160. 

S.  Giorgio,  49,  50,  187^ 

St.    John   the  Baptist, 

51- 
St.  Louis  the  King  (St. 

Stephen),  51,  54,  181- 

183. 

St.  Maria  degli  Angeli, 
5,  7,  8,  9,  22,  28,  30, 
36. 

St.  Martin,  51,  54,  68, 

163-168. 
St.    Mary  Magdalene, 

52,  174-178. 
St.  Nicolas,  51,  56,  169- 

174. 
In  Florence; 
Duomo,  256,  264. 
Sta.    Maria   del  Fiori, 

258. 
In  Lucca: 
Duomo,  64. 
In  Orvieto: 


Capella  del  Corporale, 
342. 

Capella  della  Madonna 
di  S.  Brizio,  311-314. 

Capella  di  Magi,  310. 

Capella  Nuova  or  di  S. 
Brizio,  260. 

Duomo,  207-208,  256- 
310. 

S.  Andrea,  356. 

S.  Domenico,  354. 

S.  Francesco,  357. 

S.  Giovenale,  255,  357. 

In  Pavia: 

S.  Michele,  63. 

In  Rome : 

St.  John  Lateran,  64. 

In  Spoleto: 

S.  Pietro,  17. 

Santa  Maria  in  Trasta- 
vere,  65. 
Cimabue,  134,  190. 
Clement  VII.,  310,  360. 
Colle  del  Inferno,  the,  49. 
Cosma   Romana,  Jacomo 

di,  258. 
Cosmati  family,  64. 
Conrad  of  Swabia,  19. 
Convent  of  Santa  Trinita, 

219. 

"  Crocefisso    del  Tufo," 
218. 

Dante,  71. 

Della  Robbia,   Luca,  34, 
35. 

De  Montfort,  Guy,  357. 
Diocletian,  13. 
Donatello,  252. 
Doni,  Dono,  181. 
Duomo  of  Assisi,  8,  10-12. 


Index 


363 


Florence,  256,  264. 
Lucca,  64. 

Orvieto,    207-208,  256- 
310. 

Edward  L,  357. 
Elias,  Frate,  27,  50,  51. 
Etruscans,  the,  in  Umbria, 
ix-xL 

Museums,  230-251. 

Necropolis,  213-217. 

Paintings,  221-229. 

Tombs,  204,  218,  220. 
Eugenius  IV.,  359. 
Exuperantius,  13,  19. 

Fabriano,  Gentile  de,  353. 
Faina     Collection,  239- 
250. 

Federighi,  Antonio,  260. 
Filippischi  family,  206. 
Fioretti,  the,  23,  29. 
Font,  Orvieto,  352. 
Francesca,     Piero  della, 
312. 

Franceschi,  Niccolo,  254. 
Frederick  IL,  19,  41,  50. 
Frescoes. 

In  Assist: 

Apostles,  86-90. 

Byzantine,  60. 

"Chastity,"  148-151. 

Christ,  life  of,  123-133. 

Doctors,  96. 

End  of  the  World,  90- 
94. 

Evangelists,  95. 
Florentine,  62. 
"  Glorification,"  155-158. 
In    Capella    dei  Pelle- 
grini, 195. 


Madonna  by  Cimabue, 

134-135. 
Madonna     by  Loren- 

zetti,  142. 
"  Obedience,"  1 52- 1 54. 
Old    and    New  Testa- 
ments, 77-83. 
"  Passion,"  68,  69,  159. 
"Poverty,"  145-147. 
"  Presentation,"  72. 
Sienese,  61. 
Significance  of,  73-74. 
St.  Anthony  the  Abbot, 

197-198. 
St.  Anthony  of  Padua, 

178-181. 
St.  Catherine,  183-186. 
Sta.  Chiara,  190-193. 
St.   Francis,  32-33,  34, 

103-122,  136-141,  145- 

158,  159- 
St.  Lawrence,  183. 
St.  Martin,  68,  163-167. 
St.     Mary  Magdalene, 

174-178. 
St.  Nicolas,  169-172. 
St.  Stephen,  181-183. 
Umbrian,  61. 
Virgin  Mary,  83-86. 
In  Orvieto: 
Apostles,  303. 
Chapel    del  Corporale, 

344-352. 
Christ     in  Judgment, 

Crucifixion,  251. 
Destruction  by  fire,  332. 
Doctors,  303. 
Evangelists,  302. 
Life  of  the  Virgin,  304- 
309. 


364 


Index 


Madonna  by  Pinturic- 

chio,  219. 
Medallions  and  panels, 

313,  314,  316-326. 
Prophets,  303. 
Reign     of  Antichrist, 

328-332. 
Resurrection,  333-334- 
S.  Bernardino  by  Pin- 

turicchio,  219. 
Signs  of  Judgment,  313, 

32S-333' 

The  Blessed,  338-341. 

The  Wicked,  336-338. 

"Trasimundo  Ma- 
donna," 251. 
Friedrich    of  Freiburg, 

253. 

Ghibelline  party,  205-206. 
Giocomo  di  Bologna,  301. 
Giotto,  5,  59,  65,  67,  69-73, 

138,  192,  252. 
Giovanni  Luca  di,  352. 
Giovanni  da  Bologna,  254. 
Giovanni  da  Gubbio,  11. 
Giuliana  nun.,  343. 
Golini,  Signor,  220. 
Gozzoli,  Benozzo,  19,  195. 
Gregory  IX.,  26,  44,  49. 
Gregory  X.,  357. 
Gregory  XII.,  211. 
Gualdo,   Matteo   da,  194, 

195. 

Guelph  party,  205-206. 
Guglielmo,  Fra,  258. 

Hecuba  of  Cyprus,  54. 
Henry  VIL,  209. 
Henry  of  England,  Prince, 
357. 


History  of  Assisi,  3-8. 
History  of  Orvieto,  203- 
212. 

Honorius  III.,  359. 
Hospital  (Orvieto),  207. 

Innocent  III.,  26,  36. 
Innocent  IV.,  43,  51. 

Jacobus  or  Giocomo,  49. 

La  Badia,  Monastery  of, 

251,  358. 
Ladislaus  of  Naples,  211. 
La    Rocca,    Fortress  of, 

211. 

Leo,  Brother,  30. 
Leone,  Frate,  43. 
LTngegno,  artist,  181. 
Lo  Scalza,  254. 
Lorenzetti,  Pietro,  67,  128, 
142. 

Lo  Spagna,  34. 

Maitani,     Lorenzo,  258, 
259. 

Maitani,  Niccolo,  259. 
Maitani,  Vitale,  259. 
Marcellus,  13,  19. 
Margaritone    of  Arezzo, 
193. 

Martini,  Simone,  66,  136. 
Martin  IV.,  357. 
Martin  V.,  359. 
Matilda,  Countess,  359. 
Matteo,  Sano  di,  352. 
Meo  of  Orvieto,  259. 
Mezzastris,  194,  195,  196. 
Minerva,  Temple  of,  4,  7. 
Mirror  of  Perfection,  the, 
29,  30. 


Index 


365 


Monaldeschi  family,  206, 

209,  210,  357. 
Monaldeschi,  Berardo,  210. 
Monastery  of  La  Badia 
(SS.   Severo  and  Mar- 

tirio),  251,  358. 
Monte  della  Vernia,  30. 
Montefiore,    Gentile  Par- 

tino  da  (Cardinal),  51, 

167. 

Montelupo,  Raffaello  da, 

260,  310. 
Monte  Subasio,  3,  5,  39, 

45. 

Monte  Subasio,  Abbot  of, 
23,  28. 

Mosca,  Simone,  310,  360. 
Mosca,  Francesco,  310. 
Moschino,  sculptor,  260. 
Museo  Civico  (Orvieto), 
230. 

Nelli,  Ottaviano,  54. 
Niccolo  da  Foligno,  19. 
Nicolas  IV.,  208. 

Orcagna,     Andrea,  260, 
265. 

Orsini,  Napoleone,  51,  169. 
Orsini,  Giovanni,  51,  169. 
Overbeck,  artist,  35. 

Paganello,  Ramo  di,  258. 
Paglia,  valley  of,  213. 
Palaces. 
In  Orvieto: 
Bishop's   Palace,  207. 
Opera  del  Duomo,  207, 

230-234. 
Palazzo  Comunale  ( Mu- 
ni cipio),  208. 


Palazzo    del  Capitano 
(or  del  Popolo),  208. 

Palazzo  Faino,  230,  240. 

Palazzo     Soliano,  207, 
234,  250. 
Palermo,  Innocenzo  da,  43. 
Parenzo,  Pietro,  356. 
Paul  III.,  360. 
Perugino,  31. 
Piazzas  and  Streets. 

In  Assist: 

Piazza    Vittorio  Em- 

manuele,  21. 
In  Orvieto: 

Piazza  del  Duomo,  206. 

Piazza  del  Popolo  (or 
Mercato),  208. 

Piazza    Vittorio  Em- 
manuele,  208,  356. 

Via  Cassia,  232. 

Via  di  Pusterla,  209. 
Piers  of  Duomo,  Orvieto, 

264-301. 
Pinturicchio,  219,  301. 
Pisano',  Andrea,  259,  264, 

265. 

Pisano,  Giovanni,  64,  253, 
256,  258,  264,  355. 

Pisano,  Giunta,  31,  34,  50. 

Pisano,  Niccolo,  64,  253, 
264,  356,  360. 

Pisano,  Nino,  253,  259. 

Poggio  Roccolo,  218. 

Pollaiuolo,  Antonio,  312. 

Ponte  Marchese,  220. 

Porta  Cassia  (Orvieto), 
213. 

Porta  Maggiore  (Or- 
vieto), 213,  216,  218. 

Porta  Romana  (Orvieto), 
218,  358. 


366 


Index 


Reni,  Guido,  31. 
Riccardo,  Bishop,  205. 

Sammicheli,  310,  356. 
San  Donino,  Borgo,  63. 
San  Gallo,  310,  359,  360. 
Sansoni,  52. 
Sasso  Tagliato,  220. 
Scalza,  Ippolito,  260,  310. 
Schools  of  Painting. 

Byzantine,  60. 

Sienese,  61,  66-69,  168. 

Florentine,  62,  69-168. 

Tuscan,  61. 

Native,  61. 
Settignano,  Desiderio  da, 

252. 

Sermei,  artist,  178. 
Sforza,  Captain,  211. 
Signorelli,  Luca,  254,  255, 

312,  313,  329,  336. 
Simoncelli,  Cardinal,  253. 
Sixtus  IV.,  52. 
St.  Augustine,  26. 
St.     Augustine,  quoted, 

76. 

St.  Benedict,  23,  26,  29. 

St.  Bernard,  26. 

S.  Bernardino,  32,  33,  42, 

46,  48. 
S.  Bonaventura,  32,  33. 
S.  Brizio,  Bishop  of  Spo- 

leto,  311. 
St.  Catherine,  162. 
S.  Cessidus,  13. 
Sta.  Chiara. 

Church  of,  49,  187-194. 

Dedication,  27-28. 

Frescoes,  191-193. 

Life,  37,  39,  41,  42,  44, 
45,  187-189. 


Portrait,  190. 

Relics,  43. 
S.    Costanzo,    Bishop  of 

Perugia,  311. 
St.  Cyril,  22. 
St.  Dominic,  29. 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi. 

Birth,  5,  23. 

Character,  8,  9,  24-31. 

Death  and  burial,  49-50. 

Ideals,  143-145. 

Life  compared  to  Christ, 
100-102. 

Miracle  of  Roses,  31. 

Relics,  46. 

Scenes  from  life,  32-33, 
34,  103-122. 

Surroundings,  36-40. 

Tomb,  4,  186. 
S.  Gimignano,  168. 
St.  Lawrence,  161-162. 
St.  Martin,  162. 
St.  Mary  Magdalene,  162. 
St  Nicolas,  162. 
S.  Pietro'  Damiano,  19. 
S.  Rufino,  10,  II,  13,  19. 
S.  Severino,  Giovanni  da, 

20. 

Studio   Gene  rale   in  Or- 
vieto,  211. 

Talini,  Giovanni,  251. 
Tescio,  river,  3. 
Tiber,  river,  211. 
Tiberio   d'Assisi,   32,  33, 
42. 

Todi,  Tebaldo  Pontano  di 

(Bishop),  52. 
"  Tomba  delle  Due  Bighe," 

222. 

Trasimundo,  Bishop,  251. 


i 


Index 


367 


Ugolino,  Cardinal,  26,  27, 
29,  30. 

Ugolino  da  Maestro  Vieri, 
254- 

Ugolino  di  Prete  Ilario, 

301,  344. 
Ugone,  Bishop,  10. 
Urban  IV.,  342,  354. 


Vassalectus,  architect,  64. 
"  Venus    of  Cannicella/* 
231. 

Vignola,  architect,  30. 
Vivo  da  Siena,  254. 

Well  of  St.  Patrick,  Or- 
vieto  359. 


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